

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 






























































































































































































































































































































f 






* 





























































» / 


/ 






















Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1895, by 
FORT PITT ENGRAVING COMPANY, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 


PlTTJ'BURQIi, 

OR JE5. CICliDAClM CO. 


the 


GAS. COAL ML IRON INTERESTS 


or 


WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA, 


GAS ENGINEERING TABLES. 

v 

COMPILED AND EDITED BY 

* . ^ f 

T. L. SLOCUM. Ph. D„ Pi i. g.. r. C. S.. Etc. 


PUBLISHED BY 

Port Pitt Engraving Company, 

PITTSBURGH, PA. 

1895. 





















Point Bridge, Pittsburgh 


































This Book is respectfully Dedicated 
to the 

Officers and Members 
of the 

WESTERN GAS ASSOCIATION, 


and the 

GAS ENGINEERS OF THE UNITED STATES, 
by the Author. 





TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Atwood & McCaffrey, 

Page 133 

Bailey-Farrell Manufacturing Co., 

86 

Blyth, John, & Co., 

79 

analysis, 

79 

Brown, Sons, W. H., 

63 

Calorimeter, .... 

154 

Carve Ovens, .... 

173 

Columnless Gas Holders, 

144 

Combined Coking and Gas Making Process, 

121 

Ellsworth, J. W., & Co., 

64 

Eureka Coal Co., .... 

57 

act 1 . 

analysis, 

58 

Faux Recuperative System, 

143 

Feldmann Ammonia Apparatus, 

138 

Floersheim, Henry, 

73 

analysis, 

74 

Fuel and Illuminating Gas, 

150 

Full Depth Coke Ovens, 

138 

Gardner, James, Jr., 

91 

Gas Engineering Co., 

136 

Heyl & Patterson, . . . . 

97 

Jena Lamp Chimneys, 

85 


Jutte, C., & Co., .... 

CC it 1 

analysis, 

Junkers’ Calorimeter, .... 

Le Chatelier Pyrometer, 

MeClurg, W. J., Gas Construction Co., 

New York & Cleveland Gas Coal Co., 

(( “ it , 

analysis, 

Osborne, Saeger & Co., .... 

tt it •, 

analysis, 

Otto Coke & Chemical Co., 

Pittsburgh, Fairport & North Western Dock Co., 


Supply Co., Lim., 
Washer-Scrubber, 

Pyrometer, 

Station Meters for Fuel Gas, 
Straight Water Gas Apparatus, 
Walton, Jos., & Co., Incorporated, 

it iC i • 

analysis. 

Western Gas Association, 
Welsbaeh Light Co., 

Street Lamp, 

Wilson-Snyder Manufacturing Co., 


Page 29 

29 
158 
167 
104 

15 

19 

30 
40 

121 

20 

analysis, 26 
110 
136 
167 
110 
109 

49 

50 
10 
80 
85 

135 


Tables and Reference Index will be found at end of book 











LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Point Bridge, Pittsburgh, . . . Page 

Isaac C. Baxter, ..... 

New York & Cleveland Gas Coal Co., 

tt tt <* 

Pittsburgh, Fairport & North Western Dock Co., 

tt tt tt it 

C. Jutte & Co., ..... 

Osborne, Saeger & Co., West Newton Mines, 

Darr Mines, 

Eclipse Mines, 

Cutting Machine, 

Rope Haulage, 

Engine and Dynamo, . 

Jos. Walton & Co., Incorporated, 

tt tt 

Eureka Coal Co., ..... 

tt tt 

tt tt 

tt tt 

W. H. Brown Sons, .... 

Henry Floersheim, Nottingham Mines, 

it tt tt a 

Germania “ 

tt it a tt 

O’Neil & Co., ..... 

John Blyth & Co., ..... 
Welsbach Mantle and Burners, 

Street Lamp, .... 

James Gardner, Jr., View of Loekport Retort and 
Firebrick Works, .... 


2 

8 

14 

18 

22 

24 

28 

32 

34 

36 

38 

42 

44 

46 

48 

52 

54 

56 

60 

62 

66 

68 

70 

72 

76 

78 

81 

84 

88 


James Gardner, Jr., Interior Block and Tile Mould¬ 
ing House, .... Page 90 

James Gardner, Jr., Interior Retort Works, . 94 

Storage and Shipping House, 96 

Heyl & Patterson, Coke Conveyor, . . 100 

102 

W. J. McClurg Gas Con. Co., Straight Water Gas 

Apparatus, ..... 106 

W. J. McClurg Gas Con. Co., Section of Soft Coal 

and Water Gas Apparatus, . . . 108 

Pittsburgh Supply Co., Lim., Tally Meter, . 112 

Proportional Meter, 116 
Otto Coke & Chemical Co., . . . 120' 

“ “ .... 124 

“ “ .... 126 

“ “ .... 130 

Atwood & McCaffrey, Cameron Steam Pump, 132 

Wilson-Snyder Manufacturing Co., Tar “ 134 

Gas Engineering Co., Pittsburgh Washer-Scrubber, 137 

Feldmann Ammonia Appa¬ 
ratus, . . . . . 139 

Gas Engineering Co., Faux Recuperative Benches, 142 
Columnless Gas Holders, . . . 146 

“ ““.... 148 

Rose-Hastings Process, . . . 152 

Junkers’ Calorimeter, . . . . 159 

Allegheny County Court House, . . 166 

Carve By-product Ovens, Lanehester, . 170 

















> / l S 








THE 


EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING 

Western Gas Association, 

HELD IN PITTSBURGH. PA. 

MAY 15. 16 AND 17. 1895. 


COMMITTEE. 


John H. McElroy. 
John Young. 

Jas. Gardner. Jr. 


Robt. Young. 
F. L. Slocum. 
J. A. Faux. 



WESTERN GAS ASSOCIATION. 


President, ISAAC C. BAXTER, Detroit, Mich. 

First Vice-Pres., WM. H. ODIORNE, Springfield, Ill. Second Vice=Pres., S. M. HIGHLANDS, Clinton, Iowa. 

Secretary and Treasurer, JAMES W. DUNBAR, New Albany, Ind. 


BOARD OF DIRECTORS. 


J. W. STRATTON, Valparaiso, Ind. 
WM. M. EATON, Jackson, Mich. 

E. H. JENKINS, Columbus, Ga. 
JAMES FORBES, Chattanooga, Tenn. 


WM. MCDONALD, Albany, N. Y. 

G. T. THOMPSON, St. Louis, Mo. 
IRVIN BUTTER WORTH, Columbus, 0. 
ROBT. YOUNG, Allegheny, Pa. 


HIRAM MERRILL, Jamesville, Wis. 



PAST PRESIDENTS. 



J. 0. KING, 

CHAS. R. FABEN, JR., 

FREDERICK EGNER, 

E. 

J. KING, 

T. G. LANSDEN, 

THOS. BUTTERWORTH, 

B. E. CHOLLAR, 

E. 

G. COWDERY, 

EMERSON McMILLEN, 

JAMES SOMERVILLE, 

J. B. HOWARD, 

E. 

H. JENKINS. 


GEO. G. RAMSDELL, 

JOHN FULLAGER, 




10 


HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE WESTERN GAS ASSOCIATION 


On September 18th, 1878, in pursuance to a call issued by Mr. J. 0. King, President of Gas Company, 
Jacksonville, Illinois, twenty-three officers of various gas companies and five persons interested in gas works 
supplies assembled in the Directors’ room of the St. Louis Gas Company’s office, organized the Western Gas 
Association, adopted Constitution and By-Laws, and elected the following officers : 


President, J. 0. KING, Jacksonville, Ill., 2d Vice-Pre3., WM. WALLACE, Lafayette, Ind. 

1st Vice-Pres., J. C. ZABRUICKE, St. Louis, Mo. Sec’y and Treas. LEE A. HALL, Louisiana, Mo. 

DIRECTORS : 

Wm. Dunbar, T. G. Lansden, J. W. Putman, • G. A. Lockwood, A. W. Littleton, 

Louis Hustin, E. J. King, L. C. Jennings, Geo. B. Burns, C. J. Lewis. 


The subsequent meetings were held as follows : 


May 14, 1879, 
May 12, 1880, 
May 12, 1881, 
May 10, 1882, 
May 9, 1883, 
May 14, 1884, 
May 13, 1885, 


Chicago, 
Indianapolis, 
St. Louis, 
Chicago, 
Cincinnati, 
St. Louis, 
Chicago, 


Headquarters. 
Tremont House, 
New Dennison, 
Laclede Hotel, 
Grand Pacific, 
Burnett House, 
Southern, 
Tremont House, 


No. New Members 
Admitted. 

30 

15 

18 

8 

48 

35 

36 



No. New Members 




Headquarters. 

Admitted. 

May 12, 1886, 

Columbus, 

Neal House, 

13 

May 11, 1887, 

St. Louis, 

Southern, 

31 

May 9, 1888, 

Chicago, 

Grand Pacific, 

52 

May 15, 1889, 

Cincinnati, 

Grand, 

35 

May 21, 1890, 

St. Louis, 

\ 

Louisville, 

Lindell, 

51 

May 20, 1891, 

Gault House, 

32 

May 18, 1892, 

Detroit, 


32 

May 17, 1893, 

Chicago, 

Victoria, 

20 

May 16, 1894, 

Cleveland, 

Hollenden, 

29 


Total number who have joined the Association, 

485 


Original number, 

• 

28 




513 

513 parsons at various times have become members of the Association. 


The membership May 1st, 

1895, numbers 272, which is distributed amon<3 31 states and the Dominion of 

Canada. 




The following gentlemen have served as Presidents and Secretaries. 

& <v> 


President. 

See’y & Treas. 

President. 

Sec’y & Treas. 

1878=79=80, J. 0. Kin£, 

Lee A. Hall. 

1889, Geo. G. Bamsdell, 

A. W. Littleton. 

1881=82, Thomas Butterworth, Lee A. Hall. 

1890, Clias. R. Faben, Jr., 

c ( it 

1883=84, J. B. Howard, 

A. W. Littleton. 

1891, Frederick E^ner, 

tt it 


12 






President. 

See’y &Treas. 


President. 

See’y & Treas. 

1885, 

T. G. Lansden, 

A. W. Littleton. 

1892, 

E. G. Cowdery, 

A. W. 

Littleton. 

1886, 

James Somerville, 

1 l C l 

1893, 

B. E. Chollar, 

L ( 

1 L 

1887, 

Jno. Fullager, 

Li l l 

1894, 

E. H. Jenkins, 

C l 

L L 

1888, 

Emerson McMillen, 

LI U 

1895, 

Isaac C. Baxter, 

James 

W. Dunbai 


Mr. E. J. King, of Jacksonville, Illinois, was elected president to succeed Mr. Geo. G. Ramsdell, but died 
previous to the meeting at which he was to preside. 

Of the original twenty-eight persons who were members at the organization of this Association, but seven 
are now members, as follows : 

A. W. Littleton, T. G. Lansden, Wm. Wallace, Sylvester Watts, 

James Green, John Dell, T. G. Russell. 

Death has removed the majority, some have retired from the business, while a few have been dropped from 
the roll for non-payment of dues. 

At the seventeen annual meetings there have been read 120 papers prepared by its members, all pertaining 
directly or indirectly to the manufacture and distribution of gas. The knowledge disseminated by the reading 
of these papers and the discussions of same is inestimable. No energetic gas employer returns home from any 
of these meetings who does not by the adoption of some improvement in works or distribution, more than save 
to his company the cost of his expenses to the meetings. Gas companies have been enabled to largely reduce 
cost of production and the economical distribution of gas, due to the results of the meetings of Western Gas 
Association. 

The Western Gas Association has been fortunate in its selection of presidents. A glance at the list of names 
is all that is required to prove that some of the brightest minds in the profession have directed its affairs. 


13 



A sketch of the Western. Gas Association would be incomplete did it not mention the success which attended 
the efforts of Mr. A. W. Littleton in behalf of same. He served as Secretary and Treasurer for twelve years, 
during which time the Association prospered, mainly due to his excellent judgment and exertions. His refusal 
to longer continue to serve was a disappointment to all its members. 


14 







New York and Cleveland Gas Coal Co 























NEW YORK AND CLEVELAND GAS COAL COMPANY. 


Mines located on the Pennsylvania R. R. 


Office, Westinghouse Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


President, WILLIAM P. DeARMIT. 


This Company is the largest miner and shipper of Pittsburgh 6as=coal. Their numerous mines are located 
at different points on the Pennsylvania System. They own and control a very large tract in the Pittsburgh 6as- 
coal belt, and their location includes some of the best g>as-coal in this remarkably excellent vein of coal for £as 
making purposes. It will be readily seen that a Company with as vast interests as the New York & Cleveland, 
and located in the best territory on this seam of coal, should be able to ship a larg>e variety of g>as and steam 
coal; and this is quite true in this case, as the Company mines about four thousand tons of coal per day, 
employing in the neighborhood of two thousand men. 

Under the very intelligent management of Mr. DeArmit, the £as manager can obtain a coal especially 
adapted for his purpose, e. g>., if he is running hi^h heats and carbonizing a larg>e quantity of coal per day 
per mouth-piece, a certain <5rade of ooal will be necessary in order to obtain the best results, while, on the other 
hand, if he is running low heats and lon6 charges, a different variety of coal will be necessary. These require¬ 
ments can only be met by single concerns of the calibre of this Company, for they are able to supply coals of 
quite different chemical analysis and structure from different mines of their own. This will be shown on 

pa^e 17, in analyses as £iven of coals from this Company. This Company has supplied coal to a lar^e number 

15 



of the leading Gas Companies in the Mississippi Valley and throughout New York State, and the lar^e Western 
cities, for many years, with the best of satisfaction. 

The Company is most excellently located for shipments, both East and West, and have exceptional advan¬ 
tages for lake shipments, owning docks at Cleveland. 

The analyses £iven on pa£e 17 £ive an excellent idea of the different qualities of coal for both £as and 
steam purposes. The analyses show that they have different kinds of first class £as=coals, adaptable to the 
different processes in the manufacture of coal-^as. The results of some of the analyses are obtained on a lar^e 
manufacturing scale, and are certainly an excellent showing. It is certainly to the interest of the £as manager 
to make a careful examination of these analyses when looking for a coal suitable for his purposes. The photo- 
6raveurs, marked New Yorl< and Cleveland Gas-Coal Co., are from photographs taken on different parts of the 
plant of this lar£e concern. 


16 






New York and Cleveland Gas Coal Co 





















ANALYSES. 





1 


2 

Volatile matter, 

- 

38.5 

- 

35.94 

Coke, 

= 

61.5 

= 

64.06 

Cubic ft. Gas per lb 

* > 

5.7 

- 

4.85 

Calorics, F. P. System, 

626.0 

- 

673.00 

Candle power 

= 

18.2 

- 

17.9 

Candle ft., 

- 

103.74 

- 

86.8 

Total Gas Value, 


626 H. U 

— 6 03 

626 H. U. 

— 7 R 


103.74 


86.8 

Average combined Nitrogen in 

this Company's 

Coal, 

=1.75 per cent 

Average Specific Gravity of Ga; 

3 > 

0.400 per cent to 0.470 “ 

Average Moisture in Coal, = 

. _ 

0.42 

“ 1.2 


Further Analyses of Steam and Gas Coal. 



No. 3. 

No. 4. 

No. 5. 

No. 6. 

Water, 

.61 

.63 

.42 

.49 

Volatile matter, 

39.34 

40.18 

29.66 

38.16 

Fixed Carbon, 

54.79 

53.75 

64.75 

55.69 

Ash, 

4.58 

4.73 

4.38 

4.93 

Sulphur, 

.68 

.71 

.79 

.73 


100 

100 

100 

100 


19 








PITTSBURGH, FAIRPORT & NORTHWESTERN DOCK COMPANY. 

Office, Penn Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


This Company is one of the largest shippers of gas and steam-coal from the Pittsburgh and Youghiogheny 
coal seam. The Company’s mines, for mining gas-coal, are located in the first pool, and called the Shaner Mines. 
These mines yield the genuine Youghiogheny gas-coal. Their mines for steam-coal are also located in the first 
pool, and are called the First Pool Mines of the First Pool Monongahela Gas-Coal Company. The shipping 
capacity of this Company, and its ability to handle large contracts in safety, is shown by the fact that in the 
lake shipping season of 1894, despite a three months strike, they mined and shipped 258,000 tons of lake 
coal; and that they control, under one management, the First Pool Monongahela Gas-Coal Co., Pittsburgh, Fair- 
port & Northwestern Dock Co. and the Youghiogheny & Lehigh Coal Co., of West Superior, Wis. They are, 
therefore, able to mine their own coal, ship it in their own cars, unload it on their own docks, and transport it, 
in all directions from the Great Lakes, in their own steamers. One of the very interesting features in this 
Company’s business is their method of re-shipping coal at their Fairport docks. The cars are lifted bodily and 
the coal dumped directly into the hold of the vessels. The great advantage of this is that the coal is discharged 
in one mass and is very little broken up, as compared with the older method of discharging by means of buckets. 
Two photograveurs, marked Fairport Docks, illustrate thoroughly this method of handling coal. By this method 
they are able to fill a twenty-five hundred ton cargo in ten hours. 


20 










Pittsburgh, Fairport and North Western Dock Co 





















Pittsburgh, Fairport and North Western Dock Co. 





















This Company furnishes a lar^e amount of £a3-coal throughout the West and Northwest. The analyses 
<5iven on pa£e 26 show the qualities of their 6as-coal from theShaner Mine, and also the properties of the steam- 
coal from the First Pool Mines. The steam-coal is also an excellent ^as-coal, but i3 higher in sulphur than their 
regular £as-coal. and is, therefore, rated a.s a steam-coal or steam and ^as-coal. 


25 


Gas made per 12 hours, 

Coal used in lbs., 

Yield of £as per lb., 

Average candle power. 
Candle feet 

(Candle Power tests on 100" bar, Sub 


SHANER COAL. 
Av. of 3 12-hr. runs. 
697,000 cu. ft. 
139,300 
5.00 
17.27 
86.35 

“D”, 1" pressure.) 


STEAM-COAL. 

Av. of 3 12-hr. runs. 
732,000 cu. ft. 
145,900 
5.02 
17.30 
86.85 


Total weight of coal drawn, 

By measure, coke, = 

“ breeze, - 

“ total, - - - = 

Coke and Breeze per net ton, 

Per cent, volatile matter (practical work), 
Sulphur, per cent. - = 


Av. of 2 1000-lb. tests 
702 lbs. 

16 bu. 

1 “ 

17 “ 

34 “ 

30 

0.65 


Av. of 2 1000-lb. tests. 
645 lbs. 

15 bu. 

1 “ 

16 “ 

32 “ 

35.5 

1.15 


Carbon, 
Hydrogen, 
Nitrogen, 
Oxygen, - 
Sulphur, 


Shaner Gas-Coal. Shaner Gas-Coal. 

80.101 per ct. Ash, - - 5.401 perct. 


4.345 “ 

Phosphorus, 

.010 

1.078 “ 

Total volatile matter, 

30.499 

8.412 “ 

Fixed Carbon, 

64.100 

.653 “ 

Specific Gravity, 

1.256 


Volatile Mater, = 34.2 

Coke, = - 65.8 

Cu. ft. Gas per lb., 5.4 

Calorics, F. P. System,628.0 
Candle power, - 17.35 

Candle ft., - - 93.69 


628 H. U. 

Total Gas value,- 

93.69 


6.70 


26 







C. Jutte & Co. 













C. JUTTE & COMPANY. 


Water Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. Cincinnati Mines. Mines located at Courtney, I'a., on the Monongahela Itlvcr. 

Ship via river and rail to all points West and South. 


('. Jutte & Company fire very well-known river operators, owning several steam boats and numerous barren 
with all their equipments. They are thus able to ship coal over their own line to all points on the Ohio or 
Mississippi for delivery to any advantageous point for rail shipment. Their mines are situated in the Second 
Pool, and supply first quality &as-coal, as shown by the analysis £iver» below. This concern has excellent 
facilities, especially for down-river shipment as far as New Orleans. This, however, is well known to everyone 
who has lived within si&ht of the Ohio River, as the numerous steamboats belonging to the Company are seen 
so often, that the name Juite ha long been a familiarone The illustration marked Jutte & Co how 
general method of the transportation of coal on the Ohio River. 

A NT A r V«T<-i fit’ f'fiAl 


Ash, 

4.000 

Moisture, 

1.200 

Volatile matter, 

27.000 

Sulphur, 

0.001 

Nitrogen, 

1.201 


Calorics, per cu. ft., 


Candle feet, 


Fixed carbon, 

04.088 

Gas, cu 

. ft,, in 1 lb. 

5.150 

Sped f ir 

: gravity, 

0.408 

Candle 

pjwer, 

18.000 

Coke, 

004.00 

00.000 


02.7 



004 H. U. 


OSBORNE, SAEGER & COMPANY. 

Main Office, Perry-Payne Building, Cleveland, Ohio. 

The mines of this Company are located on both the thick and thin veins of the Pittsburgh 6as coal seam, 
and in both the First and Second Pools. So it can readily be seen that they mine different qualities of coal. 
They produce lar^e quantities of the best quality of You6hio6heny £as coal from the First and Second Pools, also 
thick vein coal, which is an excellent 6as coal, as shown by the analysis. They are exceptionally well located 
for furnishing any quality of £as coal that the consumer may want, and are so located, both at their mines and 
docks, that they are able to ship coal at the very lowest cost per ton. Their West Newton mine is located at West. 
Newton, Pa., on the P., McK. & Y. R. R., the Darr (a thick vein mine) at Vanmeter, on the P., McK. & Y. R. R., 
and their Eclipse mine at Anderson Station, on the B. & 0. R. R. The shipping facilities over these roads, as a 
starting point, are principally via the L. S. & M. S. R. R. and its connections ; the N. Y., L. E. & W. R. R. ctnd 
connections ; and the B. & 0. R. R. and its numerous connections. The Company owns its own docks at Cleve¬ 
land, which are equipped with the most modern rapid coal-handling machinery. There are no buckets or scoops 
used, but the car is held firmly in position, raised up, and the coal dumped directly into the hold of the vessel. 
This is of great interest to the purchaser of £as coal, as it reduces the breakage of coal to a minimum. An idea 
of the capacity and ease with which coal is unloaded from cars into vessels by this method is given by the fact 
that one machine will unload fifteen cars of coal per hour. The Company also, especially over its Baltimore & 
Ohio connections, have dock facilities at Lorain and Huron, Ohio. They are thus enabled to re-ship their coal 
from the most advantageous points. The mining capacity of this Company is 5,000 tons per day from their 
different mines, while their capacity for handling and re-shipping coal, at their docks, is very far in excess of 
this figure. 


30 








Osborne, Saeger & Co 

































Osborne, Saeger & Co 

























Osborne, Saeger & Co., Eclipse Mine 















































































Cutting Machine, Osborne, Saeger & Co 















They have some of the most modern equipped mines in this region, as is shown by the numerous illustra¬ 
tions marked “Osborne, Saeger & Co. ’ Their illustrations entitled “ Cutting-Machine, “Rope-Haulage,” and 
“ Engine and Dynamo,” are of general interest, as they show the most approved methods of mining and hand¬ 
ling coal inside the mine. It is necessary for a company of this size to be able to mine and handle large quanti¬ 
ties of coal in the shortest possible time and most economical way, and they have shown themselves equal to 
the occasion by thus equipping their mines with the latest machinery. Several analyses and different data are 
given which have been accumulated by them, showing the real value of their coal for general gas and steam 
coal purposes. The consumer of gas coal cannot help being impressed with the peculiarly advantageous facili¬ 
ties this Company has for furnishing gas coal in any part of the West or Northwest, and for supplying it, not 
only in any quantity desired, but with a promptness which can not be equalled by companies not so well 
located. 


39 


COAL FROM OSBORNE, SAEGER & CO. 


Darr Mine. 


West Newton Mine. 

(Thick vein.) 


Eclipse Mine. 

Ash, 

4.180 

4.120 

Fixed Carbon, 

53.13 

Moisture, 

- 1.100 

.780 

Volatile Matter, 

39.70 

V. C. M., - 

24.430 

23.160 

Ash, 

4.80 

Sulphur, 

.563 

.854 

Moisture, 

1.94 

Nitrogen, - 

1.648 

1.659 

Sulphur, 

.43 

Fixed Carbon, 

- 68.079 

69.427 






Total, 

100.00 

Gas, cu. ft. in 1 lb. 

, 4.800 

5.100 



Sp. G., 

.442 

.457 



Coke, 

66.410 

66.400 



Candle power, 

19.800 

17.400 



Calorics in cu. ft. Gas., 6.52 

6.25 



Candle feet, 

95.04 

88.74 




652 H. U. 

625 H.U. 



Total Gas Value, 

— 6.8 

-= 7.0 




95.04 C.F. 

88.74 C. F. 




40 







Osborne, Saeger & Co., Rope Haulage 















































































Engine and Dynamo, Osborne, Saeger & Co. 

















« 



Jos. Walton & Co 








































Jos. Walton & Co 


















































JOSEPH WALTON & COMPANY, Ine. 


Capital Stock, $500,000. Office, Corner Smithfield and Water Streets, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Mines located on the Monongahela River, at West Elizabeth. 

This Company is one of the largest miners and shippers of river=coal, having numerous large steamers with 
all their equipment of barges, landings, etc., etc. It is one of the oldest and best known companies in Pitts- 
burgh, having been first formed in 1865. The present management is: I. N. Bunton, President; John F. Walton, 
Vice-President; Thomas McK. Cook, Secretary and Treasurer. They have supplied both the Cincinnati and Louis¬ 
ville Gas Companies with coal for many years, with very gratifying results, as shown in analyses following. 
The Company’s equipment consists of eight steamers and 275 barges, and it is therefore, evident that they 
are able to handle such large contracts as the gas companies above mentioned satisfactorily. A careful analysis 
of their 2d Pool coal, made from an average sample, is also given and shows its great value as a gas producing 
coal. 

The shipments of coal to river points by this Company reach the enormous amount of 15,000,000 bushels 
per annum. The chief ports to which they ship are Cincinnati, Louisville, St. Louis and New Orleans. 

Their mine in the Second Pool is the largest on the Monongahela River, having a capacity of 75,000 
bushels of run=of=mine coal per day. 


49 


The Company have now in construction a railroad and tipple to their First Pool mines, so that they will 
be able to ship £as coal by rail to all points. They are certainly in first position as river miners in this section, 
and with this addition are one of the leading factors in the coal business of Pittsburgh and vicinity. The 
analyses £iven show the excellent quality of their coals and the different varieties. Their steam coal is 


especially £ood. 


The illustrations marked Jos. 


Walton & Co. are characteristic of the large operations in the transportation 


of coal carried on by this Company. 


Ash, 

Moisture, 

Volatile Matter, 
Sulphur, 

Nitrogen, 

Heat Units per cubic, 
Total value, 


Volatile Matter, 
Coke, 

Candle Power, 
Cu. ft. Gas per lb. 


ANALYSES OF COAL. 


- 

4.300 

Fixed Carbon, = 

= 

1.200 

Gas, cu. ft. in 1 lb 

28.400 

Specific Gravity, 

= 

1.139 

Candle Power, 

- 

1.713 

Coke, 


ANALYSES. 

= 

37.875 = 

- 

62.125 

= 

18. 



5.5 



STEAM COAL. 

Moisture. 

= 

0.41 

Volatile Matter, 

= 29.16 

Fixed Carbon, 

67.06 

Ash, 

- 

2.40 

Sulphur, 

= 

0.97 


607 


607. 
H. U. 


94.46 


63.248 

5.460 

.460 

17.300 

63.750 

6.42 


33 1=3 bu. per 2000 lbs. 
16.34 
5.04 


50 








Eureka Coal Co 


















Eureka Coal Co 






























Eureka Coal Co 







EUREKA COAL COMPANY. 


Mines, B. & O, R. R. Office, Conestoga Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


This Company mines Youghiogheny Gas and Steam Coal, the mine being located on the Youghiogheny 
River. They have excellent shipping facilities for Western, Northern and Eastern Trade. 

East via B. & 0. R. R. North via B & 0. R. R., P. & W. R. R., W. N. Y. & P. R. R. and L. S. & M. S. R. R.; 
also via P. & W. R. R. and P. S. & L. E. R. R. to Conneaut Harbor. West via B. & 0. R. R., Vanderbilt Lines and 
Lakes. 

This mine produces an excellent steam coal, having the property of leaving when burned a white pulverant 
non-clinkering ash, which is very free from alkalies. 

The mine is located in one of the best portions of the thick vein coal, a coal which will likely become a 
much larger factor in the gas business in the near future than it has been in the past. Coke is produced from 
this coal in any ordinary gas house retort, which weighs 5 lbs. to the bushel more than ordinary gas house 
coke, and where by-product coke ovens are used, a coke will be produced which will probably range from 15 
to 30 percent, more valuable, ton for ton, for foundry purposes, than Connellsville bee hive oven coke. As the 
real value of a coal is the number of cubic feet of gas in a pound multiplied by candle power, and this multi= 
plied by the heat units, it is certain that this class of coal will undoubtedly become much better known among 
the gas people than it is at present. It is certainly a factor that should be kept well in mind when purchasing 
large quantities of coal. 

The illustrations marked Eureka Coal Company are made from photographs taken at the mines, and illus= 

trate quite fully the outside equipments with shipping facilities. 

57 



ANALYSES—GAS COALS. 



No. 1. 

No. 2. 

Moisture, 

1.000 

1.200 

Volatile Matter, 

24.900 

27.400 

Sulphur, 

.871 

1.091 

Nitrogen, 

1.663 

1.778 

Fixed Matter, 

64.366 

63.581 

Gas, cubic feet in 1 lb., 

4.060 

3.90 

Specific Gravity, Gas, 

.470 

.474 

Candle power, 

18.150 

20.330 

Coke, 

67.155 

67.500 

Candle feet, = 

73.69 

79.29 

No. 3. 

Moisture, 

- 

0.50 

Volatile Matter, 

- 

= 33.33 

Fixed Carbon, 

- 

59.89 

Ash, - 

= 

5.38 

Sulphur, 

- 

0.90 

Cubic feet of Gas per lb., 

= 

4.66 

Coke, 

= 

1354 lbs. 

Candle power, 

= 

17.84 


58 



























Eureka Coal Co 
















W. H. Brown Sons 























Office, Conestoga Building, 


W. H. BROWN SONS. 


Pittsburgh, Pa. 


This concern is one of the largest miners of river=coal in this section, and are too well known to require 
farther comment. They have numerous mines located at different points on the Monon6ahela River, and have 
their own steamers for the transportation of coal. As there has been no analysis of their coal furnished, it is 
impossible to give any accurate data in regard to the kinds of the coal they mine and sell. It might, however, 
be added that their mines are located in some of the best river-coal sections, and, undoubtedly, would show 
very satisfactory results. 


63 



J. W. ELLSWORTH & CO, 

Cleveland, Ohio. 

Mines located on P. & L. E. R. R. at Suterville, Pa. 

This Company is one of the largest shippers of gas-coal in Western Pennsylvania. The mines are located, on 
the Youghiogheny River and have shipping facilities to the West and Northwest and the lakes by P. & L. E. R. R. 
and its connections. Their daily out-put reaches the amount of 1800 tons. The coal from these mines is 
an excellent gas and steam coal, and is very high in candle power. As this Company does not furnish analysis, 
it is impossible to give any definite idea as to the merits of the coal they mine and sell, but as the mines are 
located in the section where the best gas-coal is found, it will no doubt show very satisfactory results. 


64 






Henry Floersheim, Nottingham Mines. 























Henry Floersheim, Nottingham Mines. 



































* 























' »■", 



Henry Floersheim, Germania Mines 






















Henry Floersheim, Germania Mines 











HENRY FLOERSHEIM. 


Miner and Shipper of 2d. Pool and. f oughiogheny Coal. Germania and. Nottingham Mines. 

Offices, 810 and 811 Carnegie Building, Pittsburgh., Pa. 


The mines of this well-known coal operator are located on the Wheeling Division of the B. & 0. R. R., at 
Finleyville, Pa. They are under the personal direction of Mr. Henry Floersheim, who is well known to all 
purchasers of coal. Under his excellent management a large 6as and steam coal trade has been established, 
the mines having a daily capacity of 1600 tons. 

For the past 12 years the Wheeling Gas Company has consumed on an average 14,000 tons of coal per 
annum from these mines. The coal is especially adapted for the manufacture of gas, yielding a very excellent 
coke and high candle-power gas, as shown by analysis. 

Mr. Floersheim has excellent shipping facilities via B. & 0. R. R. for general Western and Southwestern 
trade, also via P. & W. and P. & L. E. R. Rs., and their connections, to the lakes. It might be stated that the 
cars are owned by him and are entirely under his control, which is a very important factor in the gas-coal 
business. 

The illustrations of the Germania and Nottingham Mines give a very fair idea of. the extent of the mining 

operations carried on at these points, although made from photographs taken some time ago. 

73 



ANALYSIS OF COAL FROM GERMANIA AND NOTTINGHAM MINES. 



Germania. 

Nottingham. 

Ash, 

3.550 

3.200 

Moisture, 

1.300 

1.150 

Volatile matter, 

28.800 

26.700 

Sulphur, 

1.277 

.755 

Nitrogen, 

1.344 

1.358 

Fixed matter, 

- 63.729 

66.837 

Gas, cu. ft. in 1 lb. 

5.100 

5.300 

Specific gravity, = 

0.478 

0.450 

Candle power, 

17.730 

17.150 

Coke, 

- 66.500 

69.375 

Candle feet, - 

90.42 

90.90 

Calorics, 

- 630. 

631. 


630 H. U. 

631 H. U. 

Total 6 as value 

A ■ —6.96 



90.42 C. F. 

90.90 C. F 


6.94 


74 






\ 



River Tipple, O’Neil & Co 





























Tipple, John Blyth & Co 




































JOHN BLYTH & COMPANY, 

Located on the Baltimore & Ohio R. R. and Youghiogheny River, and have shipping connections both East and 

West, via this route. 


Office, No. 8 Wood Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


This Company mines genuine 2d Pool coal, or You6hio6heny gas and steam-coal. The coal that this 
Company mines and ships is an excellent quality of 6as=coal, as shown by the location of their mine on the 
map. They supply several large 6as companies with coal, and their coal gives general satisfaction for £as- 
makin6 purposes, in a well-managed £as plant. The illustration marked Big Chief Mines is the property of 
this Company. An average analysis of this Company s coal is as follows : 


Moisture, 
Volatile matter 


1.10 


37.10 


Fixed carbon 


57.68 


Ash 


3.37 


Sulphur, 


0 75 


Gas per pound, 

Candle power, 

Coke, per ton of 2000 pounds 


5.06 cubic feet. 


18.36 


1297 pounds. 


79 


WELSBACH LIGHT COMPANY. 


It is useless to give a general description of this Company, as it is exceedingly well known to every gas 
manufacturer, not only in this country, but throughout the civilized world. The Welsbach light is 
unquestionably the cheapest light in existence to-day and one of the most satisfactory. The Company has a 
large branch located in Pittsburgh, under the management of Mr. H. W. Holmes, which controls the business 
of Western Pennsylvania. For a number of years they had great trouble in making a mantle of sufficient 
strength to withstand the shocks and ordinary jars a gas-burner is apt to receive when in daily use; but after 
careful experimenting, and years of work, Carl Auer von Welsbach succeeded in making a mantle composed 
of the oxides of the rare elements—Didydium, Lanthanium, Thorium and Cerium. With the proper mixing 
and manipulating of these oxides, a mantle is now obtained which has sufficient strength, with a given weight 
of material and surface, to produce a light, with a given amount of gas, which is, as yet, entirely unequalled 
by any other means of illumination. The mantles are knit from cotton and have the appearance as shown in 
Fig. 1. They are then placed in position on the support and dipped in a solution of these rare elements, mixed 
in the proper proportions, until sufficiently saturated, and then dried and burned. The mantle is then ready 
for use, and has the appearance shown in Fig. 2. The capability of incandescence of this material is enormous, 
and then add to this the extremely small mass of material by weight and the number of square inches of 
incandescent surface, makes it the greatest incandescent substance known. The table given below illustrates 
very fully the real value of the ordinary Welsbach mantle, as compared with the later methods of gas 
illumination, and the electric incandescent light. 

Fi£s. 3 and 4 illustrate two very useful forms of burners for use with the Welsbach mantle. 


80 




SI 













































Report of D. William Wallace, F. R. S. E., F. I. C., F. C. X., Public Analyist, and Gas Examiner 

for the City of Glasgow. 

The advantages gained by the Welsbach li^ht are : 

1 A saving of half the quantity of £as, in order to obtain the desired amount of illumination. 

2. A greatly decreased quantity of the deleterious products of combustion. 

3. A correspondingly £reat diminution in the amount of heat resulting from the combustion of £as. 

4. A more perfect combustion of the 6as, doin£ away entirely with the production of smoke, of which a 
considerable amount is produced by the combustion of £as under present conditions, as evidenced by the 
blackening of the ceilings of apartments. 

5. A perfectly steady flame. 

GAS LIGHT COMPANY OF COLUMBUS. 



Consumption of Gas 
per Hour 

Candle 

Power. 

Cost per Hour. 

Cost Per 100 Candle 
Power per Hour. 

10 Welsbach Burners. 


30 Cubic Feet. 

600 

Cents. 

% Cent. 

10 Ordinary Tip Burners. 


70 

280 

10H “ 

3% “ 

10 Argand Burners. 


80 

320 

12 “ 

3% “ 

10 Incandescent Electric Lights. 



160 

10 

6M " 


20 Candle Power Gas $1.50 per 1000 feet. 


The lamp represented by Fi6. 5 is especially adapted for outdoor and street lighting. 

The canopy and wind cap are made of copper, if desired. The reflector is furnished with either corrugated 


82 


























Fig. 5. Welsbaeh Street Lamp 








silvered glass or opalescent glass. The glass globe is attached to the supply pipe by a thumb screw that can 
be adjusted at any point, the supply pipe acting as a slide for raising or lowering the glass globe when lighting 
or cleaning. 

This lamp can be lighted direct or with bi-pass connection, placed either inside or outside of buildings 
where used. 

If the lamp is used for street lighting, the bi-pass can be adjusted on the lampposts so that the lamp can be 
lighted by turning on the valve of bi-pass, thus avoiding the daily attention and care required in the use of the 
arc electric lights or in the lighting of ordinary gas lamps. 

This light is especially adapted to outdoor street lighting. The best lighted streets in Europe, or, for that 
matter, in any country are those illuminated by the Welsbach burner. The very small consumption of gas per 
candle power, with the very low cost of maintaining these lights, make them not only the most efficient, but 
the cheapest, and they are unquestionably the coming street light, as seen from our present knowledge of the 
different methods of lighting. 

JENA GLASS CHIMNEYS. 

There has lately been placed upon the market in Europe a new lamp chimney, made by Schott & Jena, of 
Jena, Germany. These chimneys are especially adapted for out-door gas lighting, where the flame is apt to 
come in contact with the chimney, or where the rain will strike it. The chimneys seem to be, by tests which 
have been made so far, almost unbreakable, unless someone takes them and throws them on the floor or hits 
them with a hammer. They can be taken from the burners red hot and plunged into water ; can be splattered 
with water, or a blow-pipe flame can be directed against a cold chimney, or a cold piece of metal held against a 
red-hot chimney without harm being done. It is simply a wonderful piece of glass, and certainly marks a 
great era in the manufacture of lamp chimneys, and especially in those for use in incandescent gas lighting. 


85 


BAILEY-FARRELL MANUFACTURING COMPANY. 



A— Case. 

B— Cover or Bonnet. 

C—Stem or Spindle. 

D —Packing Plate or Stuffing 
Box. 

E—Stuffing Box Gland or 
Follower. 

F-Stem Nut. 


GG—Gates. 

H— Gate Ring. 

I—Case Ring. 

J —Top Wedge. 

K—Bottom Wedge. 

L— ‘Throat Flange Bolts, 
n—Stuffing Box or Fol¬ 
lower Bolts. 


PITTSBURGH, PA, 

This Company is the general agent, in this section, for the celebrated 

Ludlow Gas and Water Valve. 

It is almost unnecessary to speak of the merits of the Ludlow Valve 
to the g as fraternity, as this valve has been on, the market for so many 
years. It is so well and favorably known that nothing can be said of it 
that is new to the average gas manager. 

It may, perhaps, be of general interest to state that Mr. Ludlow, many 
years ago, was engaged in the business of erecting gas plants. At that time 
the only method known of shutting off gas was by means of a water-seal 
or bladder placed between the flanged ends of the pipes and then inflated 
with air. Following this, valves were made by Mr. Ayers with a solid 
wedge-shaped gate, and used in water. Mr. Ludlow then conceived the 
idea of making a valve of parallel faces, with one gate, on the sides of which 
were cast lugs which came in contact with inclines cast on the inside of 
the case. These would force the gate to the seat and cut off the gas. 
This valve was made and used, but was not found satisfactory. However, 
it may be considered the starting point from which Mr. Ludlow gradu¬ 
ally developed the present Ludlow gate valve. Of course, many of the 
patents on gate valves have long since expired, while new devices and 
improvements have been patented which cover, at present, the Ludlow 
gate valve as placed on the market tc=day. The accompanying diagram 
will be a familiar picture to all readers of this book. 

86 
































James Gardner, Jr., Lockport Retort and Fire Brick Works 
















Interior Block and Tile Moulding House, Jas. Gardner, Jr 
















JAMES GARDNER, JR. 


Gas Retorts, Settings, and Fire-Clay Shapes. 


The Lockport Retort and Firebrick works of James Gardner, Jr., is situated at Lockport Station, Pa., on the 
main line of the Pennsylvania R. R., and has shipping facilities in all directions over the Pennsylvania 
System. 

The clay is obtained in the immediate vicinity of the works and is especially adapted to the manufacture 
of retorts and fire-clay shapes to stand the temperatures required in the present coal-gas practice. The analysis 
of the burned material, as 6iven below, shows that it is especially low in iron, contains no lime, and only a 
trace of magnesia. 

Silica, - 65.30 

Aluminum, - 33.59 

Oxide of Iron, - - 0.71 

Magnesia, - Trace. 

99.60 

The clay that will show such analysis after burning will, when properly prepared and burned, unquestion¬ 
ably make a retort which will withstand all of the ordinary changes in heats in the coal-6as bench without 
bein6 destroyed. Great tenacity and elasticity are very necessary properties to withstand the strain of drawing 

and char£in£> and this is best attained with a clay of the above composition. 

91 



CONSTRUCTION DEPARTMENT. 


This plant maintains a corps of efficient workmen, who are thoroughly familiar with all the details of the 
construction and complete erection of coal-gas benches of all kinds ready for use. This is very important 
to the gas manager, as there are three very salient features connected with the installing and maintaining 
cf coal-gas benches. First : Purchasing of the proper material. Second : The intelligent construction and 
erecting of the same. Third : The proper operation of the same. The best retort and bench work is often 
spoiled by unskilled erection, as it is very difficult to have this done properly, except at the larger gas works 
throughout the country. The addition of this department to Mr. Gardner's works has been a great factor in its 
success, and made it possible to construct benches in all parts of the country at a very moderate cost to the 
gas company, even in cases where only one or two benches are required. High-grade fire brick and all kinds 
of blocks and tile required for the lining of the various water and oil-gas systems enter into the specialties of 
this plant. 

The engravings shown on pages marked Jas. Gardner, Jr., are illustrative of the material manufactured. 

FAUX RECUPERATIVE SYSTEM OF BENCHES. 

Mr. Gardner is the sole constructor of this system of benches, which is at present giving better results than 
any other in the country, as the following record will show : 

February 24th, 1895, to March 12th, 1895, inclusive. 

Slack Coal Carbonized, - -------- 621,350 lbs 

Coke, from slack used as fuel under the benches, and for producing necessary steam, 64,530 “ 

Total per cent, used for fuel, --------- 10.38 per cent. 

These benches have excited considerable interest among the gas fraternity and will take a place in the front 
ranks of coal-gas benches. 


92 






Interior Retort Works, Jas. Gardner, Jr 















Storage and Shipping House, Jas. Gardner, Jr 










































COAL AND COKE HANDLING MACHINERY. 


HEYL & PATTERSON, 

108 Market Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. 

The mechanical handling of coal and coke in connection with the manufacture of £as, 3/3 well as in 
manufacturing plants in general, is only in its infancy. The subject is worthy of much consideration, as 
it is one of the easiest attained economies, as well as being one from which assured results can be obtained 
if properly designed and constructed, a point on which too much care cannot be taken. Such machinery 
should be abundantly strong and as simple as it is possible to make it, as it is usually handled by un¬ 
skilled labor. 

The coal storage plant at the works of The South Side Gas Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., is arranged in such 
a manner that the coal can be delivered by either wa6on or railroad car. Under the receiving hopper is placed 
a pair of crushing rolls through which all lar6e coal passes, which reduces it to the size of nut coal. It is 
then raised by an elevator into a wire rope conveyor, which distributes the coal longitudinally through the 
stock-house ; the return strand of the conveyor passes through a tunnel under the coal, which is of sufficient 
size for the attendant to pass through and is supplied with numerous valves. When it is desired to remove 
the coal from the stock-house it is only necessary to throw in the reverse gear, which runs the conveyor in the 
opposite direction from that in which it moves when stocking coal, and open one of the valves in the tunnel. 


97 





The coal passes through the conveyor into an elevator at the head of the stock-house, which raises it into a 
small bin, where it is ready for the charter. A fair idea of the system can be had by reference to the illus¬ 
tration on pa£e100. 

The operation of this plant, as well as many similar ones, demonstrates that the cost per ton of coal un¬ 
loaded, stocked and placed in bin ready for charter, including interest, depreciation and labor, need not exceed 
3.2 cents per ton of coal, not considering anything for the value of the storage, which in this instance is suffi¬ 
cient to operate the plant for sixty-three days. 

The plant for handling and stocking the coke consists of an endless trough conveyor under the firing 
floor into which the coke passes direct from the retorts. It then passes into an elevator at the end of the 
trough conveyor, by which means it is raised into a flight conveyor, which stocks it in the yard. The amount 
of coke that can be thus stocked is very lar6e, as the length of the conveyor can be extended to 250 or 300 feet. 

In plants where breeze coke is made, screens can be placed under the conveyor in such a manner that 
the various sizes are separated and stocked in separate piles, which obviates rehandling, which is of necessity 
an expensive operation. 

The two illustrations of this plant show it very thoroughly, and its value is very evident to any person 
familiar with the cost of operating a 6 as works. 

These plants were designed and erected by Messrs. Heyl & Patterson, of 108 Market Street, Pittsburgh. Pa., 
which firm was organized some ei£ht years a£o. They have devoted their entire attention to the desi£nin6 and 
erecting of plants for the handling and storing of coal, coke, and similar materials. Realizing that frequently 
only indifferent results are derived from plants of this character (owin£ to their peculiarities) where the various 
parts of the plant were furnished or erected by several parties, Messrs. Heyl & Patterson have made a special 
effort to equip themselves in such a manner that they are able to contract for the entire plant and to 


98 





Coke Conveyor 

































Heyl & Patterson. 






















guarantee the results, thus removing the question of uncertainty. They have a lar6e force of competent engi¬ 
neers and expert workmen, which enables them to erect such work in the most approved and economical 
manner. 

Messrs. Heyl & Patterson have erected a lar^e number of plants in various manufacturing establishments 
in the vicinity of Pittsburgh for the handling of both lump and nut bituminous coal, and are at all times pleased 
to show them to parties interested in such matters. 


103 


W. J. MeCLURG GAS CONSTRUCTION COMPANY. 


Miller Patents. 

Office, 906-907 Carnegie Building. 

The Miller Patents cover in general two classes, a straight water gas apparatus, in which hard coal or coke 
is used with sufficient oil or benzine for enriching, and a soft coal and water-gas apparatus, by which they are 
able to make water-gas from soft coal by carbonizing the coal first with the red-hot 6as at the time of for- 
matron, carrying off all coal-gas as such, and converting all tar into permanent gas and carbon. 

The following illustrates their method of operation : In starting the soft coal apparatus, the fire-pots or 
retorts are filled with coke, which is blasted to an incandescent state. The second fire-pot is then charged 
with a given amount of soft coal, and steam is turned on at a given point, which passes through the first fire- 
pot, and is decomposed into hydrogen and carbon monoxid gases, which pass down through the first fire-pot 
and up through the second. These gases in passing through the second fire-pot become very hot, and in 
passing through the fresh charge of coal, aid materially in carbonizing the coal, and carry off with them the 
coal-gas and convert any tar into gas and carbon. After running a specified time, the first fire-pot becomes 
cooled so that it will not decompose the steam ; then the valve between the retorts is closed, and steam turned 
on at a given point in the second fire-pot, which, in passing through the coke, becomes decomposed, as in first 
fire-pot or retort, and makes the life of the run that much longer. 

By the time the bed of coke has become cooled in the second fire-pot, the coal has been carbonized, and 
there remains a bed of coke. During this latter part of the run which is being made in the second fire-pot, the 


104 






W. J. MeClurg Gas Construction Co 


































valve has been opened in the first, and air turned on, the heat regained, and it is ready to charge as before. The 
second retort is then blasted, and above operation repeated from the second fire-pot to the first. 

Where straight water and coal-gas combined are being made the gas is passed out at a given point, leaving 
the valves set in such a position as to leave a free exit for the gas through to the seal, where it is carried off 
through an exit pipe to scrubbers or holders. But if it is desired to enrich this gas, close or open the valves, 
as the case may be, so it can be carried into the fixing chamber, or super-heater, meeting oil gases from the 
second fire-pot, and passing along through the zig-zag or spiral chamber to outlet, and from thence to the seal, 
then to exit pipe as above mentioned. Both chambers one and two are constructed so as to work in like manner. 

In heating up the carburetor, or fixing chamber, we close the valves, and pass the products of combustion 
out at a given point, and into the fixing chamber at a given point, to an open valve on top of the apparatus. If 
it is not desired to heat the carburetor or superheater, the products of combustion should be passed out at a given 
point, having the different valves closed, leaving a free passage for the products of combustion to stack, 
which is directly over the product of combustion valve. 

This work requires only four men per million feet of gas manufactured, and an apparatus this size occupies 
less floor space than any other type. 

Some of the results obtained by the Miller patents are given. The soft coal water-gas machine yields 
55,000 cubic feet of gas per ton of coal, being a ten-candle power gas. This can be increased of course with 
the addition of oil or benzine to any candle power desired. The marsh gas per cent, will be equal to a little 
above carbon monoxid. These are excellent results, and are in the right direction toward the ideal of water- 
gas apparatus construction. 

The apparatus is well shown by the diagram. 


107 



IMPROVED SOFT COAL APPARATUS. 


TtO* 0« i:»£ * 


108 





























































































































































STRAIGHT WATER-GAS APPARATUS. 

The watei-gas apparatus for manufacturing water-gas from hard coal or coke and oil, under the Miller 
patents, is illustrated by half-tone engraving. 

This apparatus is well known and has several advantages in the way of arranging the super-heater. The 
arrangement is, such that there is little or no clogging, and it is easily cleaned. The several machines that this 
Company has in operation are giving excellent results. The gas produced is free from drips and of very hi6h 
candle pow ei, 26 to 30 lbs. of hard coal or coke with 4 to 4| gallons of crude oil will produce 1000 feet of 20 to 
22 candle-power gas,. It, is unnecessary to enter further into the details of this part of the system, which is 
alieady known, and the illustration gives a sufficiently accurate idea of the machine without further descrip= 
tion. The anal} sis is made from the product of one of these machines running on coke and crude oil. 

ANALYSIS OF SAMPLES OF GAS BY MILLER GAS PROCESS. 


Hydrogen, 

H 

Per cent 

37.60 

Carbonic Oxide 

CO 

22.45 

Marsh Gas, 

CH 4 

19.10 

Illuminates 

C 2 H 6 

11.40 

Nitrogen, 

N 

3.15 

Carbonic Acid, 

CO 2 

3.20 

Oxygen, 

0 

2.90 

Sulphuretted Hy., 

H 2 S 

.20 

Candle power, 22. 

By Volume, 

100.00 


109 



STATION METERS OF LARGE CAPACITY FOR FUEL GAS. 


Accurate. Durable. Dow in Price. 


Two serious obstacles have heretofore prevented the general adoption of Station Meters for use with fuel 6as, 
namely, the 6reat cost of meters of sufficient capacity to meet the demand of a lar^e plant, and the lar6e 
amount of floor space required for such a meter, if used, both of which hindrances are overcome in the form 
of meter under consideration. 

A higher decree of accuracy in measuring than has heretofore been possible with the ordinary form of 
meter has also been attained. 

In the old style meters the measurement of 6as was effected by alternately filling and discharging one or 
more chambers of known capacity, and by means of clockwork registering the number of times such chambers 
were filled and discharged, from which the number of cubic feet passed through the meter was readily calcu- 
lated, or, in fact, was automatically shown on the dial-plate of the meter. It is obvious that as the quantity 
of £as to be measured became greater, the capacity of the meter could only be increased by en 1 e r6i n 6 the 
measuring chambers, and increasing the speed at which the moving parts of the meter were driven. To increase 
the speed beyond a certain limit has been found impracticable on account of excessive frictional resistance and 
consequent wear and inaccuracy of the meter. The other alternative of increasing the size of the meter was 


110 





Pittsburgh Supply Co., Tally Meter 
















limited only by the amount of space which could be spared for the meter in service. This last item was not an 
unimportant one, however, as will be seen when it is remembered that a meter having a capacity of 50,000 
cubic feet per hour required a cylindrical case eleven feet in diameter and eleven feet long, and larger sizes, of 
course, occupying a proportionately greater amount of space. 

In the “ Youngs' Fuel Meter ” an entirely different method is adopted, producing an apparatus of greatly 
increased capacity without a corresponding increase of size or bulk. This consists in dividing the flow of gas 
into two currents, the volumes of which bear a known ratio to each other, and actually measuring only one of 
the currents (the smaller), from which the quantity passing in the other and larger current will be known, so 
long as the ratio between the two remains constant. As the ratio of the volume of gas unmeasured to the 
volume of gas passed through the meter can be made as high as may be desired, any ordinary size meter such as 
is used for measuring illuminating gas may be used to register the volume of the lesser current, and by simply 
changing the gears to correspond with the ratio between the two currents, it will register the whole amount of 
gas passed. This constitutes what is technically known as a “Proportional Meter,” consisting, as will be seen, 
of two separate parts, the one, known as the “shunt,” in which the flow of gas is divided, and the ratio between 
the two currents determined and maintained, and the other being a meter proper, in this connection known as 
a “tally meter,” in which the amount of gas passed is measured and recorded in the manner above described. 
This last, as above noted, being practically of the ordinary form of meter, it need not for the purposes of this 
article be more fully described here. 

It will be obvious that it is of the highest importance in a meter constructed upon this principle that the 
“shunt” be capable of maintaining an absolutely constant ratio between the unmeasured and the measured 
portions of the gas under all conditions of service, and independent of variations in the frictional resistance in 
the tally^meter, or in the “shunt” itself. 


113 


In the construction of proportional meters heretofore it has been assumed that the loss of pressure or friction 
in passing through the tally-meter was constantly the same, or so nearly so that the variation in friction or 
loss of pressure at different volumes was so small that it need not be taken into account, and that it was only 
necessary to provide two or more valves, through one of which a portion of the gas was passed to or from the 
tally-meter, while the rest of the gas was passed or shunted through the other valve or valves to the outlet. The 
relative area of the valves being known, the total amount of gas passed was easily calculated from the amount 
shown to have passed through the tally-meter. This form was found to be accurate only so long as the total 
volume passed through remaind constant. Larger volumes would not register enough, and much smaller 
volumes would not register at all. An improvement was then added, consisting in placing a diaphragm so con¬ 
nected to the proportional valves as to vary the openings, making them larger or smaller as the volume of 
gas passed through became greater or less—keeping the loss of pressure between the inlet and outlet nearly the 
same, whether the volume passed was large or small, also keeping the relative volumes of the measured and 
the unmeasured portions constant—but this was found to be inaccurate, except in cases where a very heavy loss 
of pressure in the “shunt” was permissible, and so for a very large majority of cases making its use impossible 
or unadvisable. 

In the Youngs’ Fuel Meters the conditions which have rendered other proportional meters nugatory and 
inaccurate have been overcome, the ratio between the measured and the unmeasured portions of the gas is kept 
absolutely constant, and no matter what may be the extent of fluctuations in pressure or volume of gas enter¬ 
ing the “shunt,” the amount passed is measured and recorded with extreme accuracy. 

By experiment it has been ascertained that an ordinary meter of any of the well-known types “is slow” in 
running at less than.5 per cent, of its normal capacity. The less the percentage below this figure, the greater 
will be the error on the record of the amount passed. This would seem to vitiate the accuracy of the division 


114 









Pittsburgh Supply Co , Lim., Proportional Meter. 
















arrived at in the “shunt,” and so it would were it not for the special “tally” which has been devised, and 
which keeps the' error of the whole apparatus within the limits of 2 per cent., whether the volume of the gas 
passed be equal to the normal capacity of the meter or less than one-hundredth of the ordinary amount. 

In testing these meters a special proving tank is used, built according to state standards, with scales, 
veniers, etc. 

For rendering the work especially accurate, all meters are tested at one, five, ten, twenty, thirty, fifty, 
seventy-five and one hundred per cent, of their rated capacity, and no meter is allowed to be put into use the 
error of which exceeds two per cent. In all of the tests, except those of one and five per cent., an average of five 
readings is taken. 

The nine sizes at present made have capacities ranging from 6,000 to 150,000 cubic feet per hour. Larger 
sizes can easily be constructed on the same plan. 

The maximum error in all so far constructed under all tests above described has not exceeded hooper cent. 

The ratio established by the proportional valves in the meter having a capacity of 100,000 cubic feet per 
hour is shown as 200 to 1. Absorption at full volume, between one and two inches water pressure. 

The meter shown in the illustration, having a capacity of over 100,000 cubic feet per hour, is approximately 
sixty inches in diameter and ninety-six inches high, sixteen by twenty-two inch flanged connections. Auto¬ 
matic draining pipes are provided, and man-heads for cleaning and reaching the internal parts. Gauges 
are also provided for ascertaining the level of the sealing fluid in the diaphragm chambers inside the meter, 
and for determining, upon inspection, whether or not the meter is working properly. 

Accuracy, absorption and durability, when proper care is used, are guaranteed. 

The smaller cut shows a sectional view of the special “tally ” used. It is practically two accurately cali¬ 
brated meter provers moving in oil, side by side and connected by gas tight poppet valves. 


117 


This “tally” will measure accurately up to 800 cubic feet per hour, and will also measure less than one 
foot per hour, and is actually faster on small volumes than it is on lar£e. 

By means of a combination of the “shunt” and special “tally” a perfect station meter is produced. 

Some of the largest sizes have been in constant use for over two years, and have measured during that time- 
nearly two billion cubic feet each without any expense for maintenance or repairs, and there are all told over 
250 in actual service. 

The prices are low as compared with others. If further information is desired, it may be obtained from the 
manufacturers, PiHsburgh Supply Company , Limited, 97 Water St., Pittsburgh, Pa. 






60 Oven Otto-Hoffman Plant, “ Constantine III.,” 
near Boehum, Westphalia. 


































































COMBINED COKING AND GAS MAKING PROCESS. 

System, Otto-Hoffmann. 


In the following we call attention to a process by which enormous quantities of coal gas are obtained as a 
by-product. This process has just been introduced into this country, and is of the greatest importance to the gas 
industry. 

The chief processes of dry distillation of coal now in use are the following :—First, the manufacture of illu¬ 
minating gas , by which a good gas, but inferior and little coke, inferior tar and less ammonia are produced, and 
this in a very expensive way ; Second, the ordinary coking process in beehive ovens, by which only a good coke is pro¬ 
duced, while all the other products 4° to waste ; Third, the improved coking process in retort ovens, by which all the 
products are obtained in satisfactory quality and quantity. 

Among the different retort coke ovens with recovery of by-products, the Otto-Hoffmann Oven has given the 
best results and is the most universally adopted. It is not a new invention, the first ovens of this system having 
been built in 1882, and have been running ever since. There are now in operation and course of erection 
MORE THAN 2,500 OVENS, representing an investment of about $8,000,000. Besides these Otto-Hoffmann 
Ovens, there are in operation about 6,500 Otto-Coppee Ovens, which do not save the by-products and gas, but 
utilize the off-heat for the generation of steam. The total number of Otto Ovens is therefore about 9,000. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE OTTO-HOFFMANN PROCESS. 

The coal is coked under perfect exclusion of air, in long rectangular ovens or retorts of fire brick (33 feet 
long, 6 feet high and from 16 to 26 inches wide, according to the character of the coal). They are closed at 
both ends by iron doors. Thirty of these doors are placed parallel and close together, and are enclosed in one 


121 



block of masonry. Two such blocks, i. e., 60 ovens, usually form a plant. The coal is dumped into the retorts 
through three charging holes in the roof, from larries running on tracks on top of the ovens. The discharging is 
done mechanically, and the discharging and recharging of a seven-ton retort is accomplished in twelve minutes, 
a great saving of labor. 

After filling the retorts, the charging holes and doors are luted, and the two gas escape valves in the roof 
are opened. All the gases and vapors then enter the large collecting main, and pass through same into the 
condensing house, where they are deprived of tar and gas liquor. The gas liquor is afterwards pumped into the 
ammonia house, and there converted into sulphate of ammonia or concentrated ammonia liquor. 

After leaving the condensation house, the purified gas enters the holder, from which a part of it is returned 
to the ovens to be burned in a system of flues within the side walls and under the bottom of the retort. The air 
used for combustion is previously heated in Siemen’s regenerators by the off-heat of the ovens. This is a very 
successful feature in regard to heat, i. e., gas economy. The amount of gas used for heating the ovens varies 
with the character of the coal from 40 to 60 per cent, of the total gas, the rest is available for other purposes. 

The capacity of each retort is seven net tons of coal. The coking time varies from 20 to 48 hours. With 
Connellsville coal, a plant of 60 ovens cokes 420 tons of coal per 24 hours, yielding 300 tons of coke (per year, 
150,000 tons of coal, yielding 108,000 tons of coke). The percentage of products from different coals may be 
seen frorn following table of analyses. In practice the yields exceed a little the results of these laboratory tests. 


COKING COALS FROM 

Coke, per cent. 

Tar, per cent. 

Sulphate of Ammonia, 
per cent. 

Cu. ft. of Gas per 2000 
pounds coal. 

(yormftllflvillfi. 

72.8 

4.0 

1.10 

9375 

8811 

9131 

9436 

Pittsburgh. 

69.4 

4.2 

1.00 


84.8 

1.7 

.72 

W^st,phalia ; (TPrmany. 

76.4 

3.0 

1.00 




122 



























60 Oven Otto-Hoffman Plant, Recklinghausen II 
Herne, Westphalia. 































































60 Oven Otto-Hoffman Plant, Recklinghausen II. 
Herne, Westphalia. 

























From this table it is evident that the Connellsville and Pittsburgh coals compare very favorably with the 
Westphalian coals, on which the Otto=Hoffmann Ovens have scored such an astonishing success. 

THE PRODUCTS OF THE OTTO-HOFFM ANJST OVEN. 

The coke, provided a good coking coal is used, is of excellent quality. Many coals can be successfully coked 
in this oven which would not give a satisfactory coke in the beehive oven. Germany, which is noted for its 
fuel economy in blast furnaces, produces most of its coke in Otto Ovens, with or without recovery of by-products. 
Large samples of American coals shipped to Germany produced an excellent blast furnace coke. 

The iar is of better quality than that of the gas works because it contains less water and coal dust (fixed 
carbon). It is preferred by tar distillers on account of its higher yield of light oils (benzole, etc.) and anthra¬ 
cene. The yield is generally somewhat higher in gas works, because a more bituminous coal is used in the 
same, and for other reasons. 

The yield of ammonia is considerably higher in the Otto-Hoffman coke ovens, which is an important factor 
from a financial stand point. The difference is shown in the following table, which shows the results of two 
gas works (Duesseldorf and Essen), and an average of 340 Otto-Hoffmann coke ovens, all running on West- 
phalian coal. 


YIELD OF TAR AND SULPHATE OF AMMONIA FROM WESTPHALIAN COAL. 

In Gas Works, - 4.73 per cent. Tar, - .672 per cent. Sulphate of Ammonia. 

In 0. H. Ovens, - 3.31 per cent. Tar, - 1.140 per cent. Sulphate of Ammonia. 

The gas. The enormous quantity of gas is evident from the following figures. A plant of 60 Otto-Hoffmann 

Ovens, running on Connellsville coal, produces 3,822,000 cu. ft. of gas per 24 hours, of which at least 1,911,000 

127 


cu. ft. are available. However, the total quantity of gas could be made available for other purposes by heating 
the ovens with producer gas. This could be cheaply made from a part of the coke i'n the incandescent state, as 
it is drawn from the oven. The following table shows the value of the gas as a fuel : 


TABLE OF ANALYSES AND RELATIVE HEAT VALUE OF DIFFERENT GASES. 


Number. 

PER CENT. OF VOLUME. 

Benzole | 

Vapor. 

Aethy- 

lene. 

1 

Aethane. 

X . 

CO D 

fa 2 

Hydrogen. 

Carbon 

Monoxide. 

Carbon 

Dioxide. 

Nitrogen 

fl 

© 

-C 

>» 

M 

o 

Sulph'ret’d 

Hydrogen. 

Vapor. 

Relative heat 

Value. 

O, Ho 

c 2 h 4 

c* 2 h 6 

ch 4 

H 

CO 

co 2 

N 

o 

h 2 s 

H,0 

1 . 

Murrysville Natural Gas. 


1.0 

5.0 

67.0 

22.0 

0.6 

0.6 

3.0 

0.8 



100.0 

o 

Illuminating Gas, average American. 


4.0 


40.0 

46.0 

6.0 

0.5 

1.5 

0.5 


1.5 

74 0 

3. 

Illuminating Gas, Cologne.( West- 4. 

1.54 

1.19 


36.0 

55.0 

5.4 

0.87 




74.0 


\ plialian >■ 









. 

. 




4. 

Otto-Hoflinann Coke Oven Gas.( Coal. J. 

0.61 

1.43 


36.11 

53.32 

0.49 

1.41 



0.43 


70 6 

5. 

Water Gas. 




2.4 

45.00 

45.0 

4.0 

2.0 

0.5 


1 5 

37 4 

6. 

Producer Gas, Bituminous Coal. 


0.4 


2.5 

12.0 

27.0 

2.5 

56.2 

0.3 



19 4 


Producer Gas, Anthracite Coal. 




1.2 

12.0 

27.0 

9 r> 

57 0 

0.3 



17 1 

8. 

Producer Gas, Coke. 




T race 

1.9 

29.4 

2.0 

66.7 




13 1 

9. 

Blast Furnace Gas. 




3.5 

7.0 

20.0 

t v 

4.0 




11 9 












. 



The table shows that there is but very little difference between coal gas from gas retorts and coke ovens. 
Indeed, we could not expect any great difference, because both processes are principally the same. 

In case the gas is to be used as a fuel under boilers, or as a source of power in a gas motor, then it would not 
require any further treatment. In case of its use for illuminating purposes, however, the sulphuretted hydro¬ 
gen would have to be removed and the gas would have to be enriched. This could be done at very little extra 

128 













































































































Interior of Bi-Produet Plant at Recklinghausen II. Colliery 

Herne, Westphalia. 




























cost. The candle power of the coke oven £as is about one-haif that of the ordinary retort £as. In Germany the 
use of the coke oven £as for illuminating purposes is limited to the coke works, because the blast furnaces and 
collieries operating the coke ovens find it more profitable to use the £as as a fuel under boilers, instead of the 
very expensive coal. In this country the conditions are different. Some very interesting figures in regard to 
the Otto-Hoffmann coke oven 6as may be found in the “Iron A6e’’ of March 21st, 1895. 

It is impossible, in this necessarily limited space, to more than draw attention to the subject. The Otto Coke 
and Chemical Co., No. 311 Lewis Block, Pittsburgh, Pa., control the rights for the United States and Canada, and are at 
present erecting 120 ovens at the Cambria Iron Works at Johnstown, Pa. They will be pleased to 6ive full 
information to interested parties. 


131 



THE CAMERON STEAM PUMP. 


atwood & McCaffrey, agents. 
132 
































atwood & McCaffrey. 

The large shop and warehouse of this Company is on Third Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa, 


The name of this Company is well known to the general trade in pipe and fittings, and everything pertain¬ 
ing to iron pipes, valves, pumps, etc. They are manufacturers of gas-valves of all sizes, and make a specialty 
of special shapes in wrought and cast-iron work. They are agents for the Cameron steam pump, an illustration 
of which is given. These pumps are designed for use in places which are inaccessible or where repairs are 
difficult to make. They are very largely used by the Standard Oil Company for the handling of oil through 
their various pipe lines, and are especially adapted to a class of work of this kind where exposure will do no 
harm, and care cannot be given them. 


133 




134 




















































































WILSON-SNYDER MANUFACTURING COMPANY. 


This well-known concern is located at the corner of Ross and Water Streets, Pittsburgh, Pa., where they 
have very extensive works for the manufacture of pumping machinery of all kinds, valves, pipe fittings, 
special piping*, etc., etc. The illustration shows a pump which is especially useful for tar pumping;. It is the 
most efficient tar pump on the market and recommends itself to g*as engineers who handle their tar with 
steam. It is simple in construction; and its valve motion is especially designed for thick, slow moving 
liquids. There is little to g*et out of order, and the pump requires.scarcely any care. 

They also make a specialty of bending* all sorts of shapes in larg*e pipe, and are thoroughly equipped for 
the manufacture of valves of all kinds and descriptions. They are also g*etting> ready to put upon the market 
a special gas engine, for the operation of water works and dynamos. There is really nothing which should 
interest the £as manager more, just at present, than the operation of a water works by a g*as engine. 
There are now twenty cities in Continental Europe which operate water works entirely by g*as engines. The 
method of power transmission is usually by rope, and the plant is extremely compact and practical, while the 
results obtained are less than one-half in cost that of the best managed steam water works. This Company is 
ready to take up the question of water works and the complete installation of the same in any part of the United 
States. 


135 



GAS ENGINEERING COMPANY. 

Office, Conestoga Building, Pittsburgh, Pa. 


This Company was incorporated about two years ago for the purpose of manufacturing all classes of gas 
works machinery and building, designing and erecting gas works for both fuel and illuminating purposes. The 
Company is the owner of the Pittsburgh Washer Scrubber, shown in Fig. 1. This machine has been designed 
and developed, and is now unquestionably the best on the market for removing ammonia from gas. The 
machine is built on the Multiple-Pelouse system, having plates on a central shaft fastened about 3=8 of an inch 
apart, and perforated so that the perforations on one plate come' opposite the blanks on the next. The plates 
are in groups or wheels with partitions between for the concentration of the liquor. The plates are each turned 
accurately to a given diameter, this diameter being the same as the inner diameter of the shell above the 
water line. The wheels are all fastened on a shaft permanently, and when everything is in position are 
raised to within 1=64 of an inch of touching the inner portion of the shell, thus making a seal that gives the same 
scrubbing action as the plates. There is nothing inside the machine that rubs, touches or wears against any 
other part. Therefore, there is nothing to get out of order, or become displaced, so there is no necessity 
for getting inside. The Pittsbxxrgh Washer Scrubber will remove all traces of ammonia and a large portion 
of the carbon dioxide, and at the same time concentrate to 22 oz. or 23 oz. liquor, if so desired. This is being 
practically demonstrated every day by the large machine now in operation at the Pittsburgh Gas Company’s 
works. The Company has also designed a scrubber, which is built with plates slightly separated from each 
other. These wheels have the initial plate made of 1=4 inch steel, the outer edge coming within 1=64 of an 


136 




Fig. 


I. 


137 




















































inch of the inner shell', and the openings near the center of the plate, the £as flowing upward between the plates. 
The thin plates come within 1 1=2 inches of the inner diameter of the shell. The second outer plate, which 
is made of 1=4 inch steel, is 3 inches less in diameter than the inner diameter of the shell. This machine 
is not as efficient as the Pittsburgh Washer Scrubber, but is very much cheaper in construction, and is only 
about three-fifths the length of machines of this class, having the same capacity. 

FELDMANN AMMONIA MACHINE. 

The Gas Engineering Company is the sole a6ent for this machine in North America. There are more machines 
of this type in use • for the manufacture of sulphate of ammonia in Europe than all others together. It is the 
simplest, the most effective and cheapest for its capacity on the market. It is nearly automatic, usin6 
a minimum amount of steam and removing all of the ammonia from the gas-liquor. Fi£. 2 6ives a very £ood 
idea of the machine as built for the production of sulphate of ammonia. Amon6 the hundreds of these 
machines now in use there are many which are specially designed for the production of concentrated liquor, 
aqua and chloride of ammonia. This machine has one of the best attachments known for the production of 
concentrated liquors. This can be attached to the machine, as shown in cut, by simply making connection 
with the pipe which connects the machine with lead absorber. It not only makes very concentrated liquor, 
but does not waste any of the ammonia, a thin£ very much to be desired, and which is not obtained in many 
types of machines for this purpose. 

COKE OVENS. 

This Company has 6iven a 6reat deal of attention to the construction of coke ovens of all classes, for the 
saving of bi=products and are now in position to build any class of coke ovens desired. Different cities and 
conditions demand different classes of ovens, and this Company is in position to take up the matter intelligently 
and practically in any part of this country. They are patentees of the full depth coke oven, which is shown 

in a separate article, and, therefore, control the erection of this oven. The special feature of the full depth 

138 




FELDMANN AMMONIA APPARATUS 


139 


























































































































coke oven is the shapes used in the construction of the flues. These are so designed that they can be replaced 
at a very little cost; can be made any desired thickness, and the width of the oven can be varied at will 
without interfering in any way with its general construction. These are points that have not been covered 
by any other coke oven. Further, they are so designed that they make almost a 6as tight retort of the coke oven, 
and are, therefore, specially adapted to the production of gas for fuel and illuminating purposes. The primary 
and secondary airs are supplied by pressure blowers, and are heated to a given temperature before coming in 
contact with the coal or gas from the producers. The whole thing is so arranged that every feature is entirely 
under control, and the pressures in the flues and ovens are regulated by an equalizing governor between the 
exhausters and the blowers, so that they are always equal, and there are no leaks from the ovens to the 
flues, or vice=versa. The diagram gives a very excellent idea of this oven. 




CENERAL FL-A.M OF FLIL-L. DEPTH OVENS 
-CAS ENGINEERING CD. 

SCALEi'-/ : fl" APRIL/^M 


140 


nRAtUtNC*/JJ 



























































































































Gas Engineering Co., Faux Recuperative System. 



























FAUX RECUPERATIVE SYSTEM. 


This Company is the sole a^ent for this system of carbonization of coal, in conjunction with. James Gardner, 
Jr., who is the sole manufacturer and constructor of the fire=clay material that enters into it. The bench, is 
designed and built on the pure recuperative system, and has given most excellent results, a record of which 
will be found in the article of James Gardner, Jr. The iron work on these benches, including the hydraulic 
main and connections, are of quite a different type than those in common rise, there being no bridge pipes, 
but instead, the stand pipes turn directly into the side of the hydraulic main near the top. This is con¬ 
sidered an improvement, and the results obtained in the tar produced, and in the small stoppage in the 
stand pipes, show that it is a great advantage over the old form of bridge pipes. The bench was designed and 
patented by J. A. Faux, Superintendent of the South Side Gas Works, of Pittsburgh, Pa., and is certainly a 1 
great credit to him. 


143 



COLUMNLESS GAS HOLDERS. 


There is being erected in England at present a large number of gas holders without guide frames, of a very 
satifactory type. The structure is an entire departure from the usual forms and is built under the patents of 
Gadd and Mason, of Manchester. The illustrations on pages 14 6 and 148, show two styles of this holder. In 
the first illustration the guides are inside the holder and well, and second illustration outside. The construe- 
tion is simplicity itself; the guides are made of two channels fastened back to back so as to make an I; this is 
riveted onto the holder, either inside or out, as the case may be, spirally, at an angle of 45°. As soon as one 
guide runs out or stops at the top of the section, the next one starts at the bottom directly under the upper 
end of the first, and so on as near as the circumference can be divided. 

This brings the guides that are opposite each other at any diameter of the holder at exaetty right angles to 
each other. The bottom of each lift, if internal guides are used, has at each guide two small guide wheels which 
clamp onto the guide rail and travel smoothly on its web. The holder rises with a spiral motion and must be 
perfectly rigid, and the following advantages are claimed for this form of construction : 

1. The total weight of the entire structure of gas holder is reduced from 30 per cent, to 50 per cent. 

2. The cost of freight transportation and erection is reduced to the same extent, and -in cases where gas 
holders are shipped abroad to places difficult of access, this represents a very large amount of money. 

3. The cost of painting columns and girders periodically is saved. 

4. The construction of a tank is simplified. The tank wall (of whatever construction) is a regular cylinder. 
There are no piers needed, and all expensive foundation stones for the bases of columns on standards are dis¬ 
pensed with. 


144 





Gadd Columnless Holder, Inner Guides 


















































































Gadd Columnless Holder, External Guides 









5. The removal of heavy £uide carriages and rollers from the top curbs considerably lowers the center of 
gravity of the structure, and dispenses with the extra strength of sheeting necessary to carry these at the points 
where they are attached to the gas holder. 

6. As there are fewer parts, there is less liability for the £as holder to ^et out of order in working, and 
the mode of construction lends itself to various means for special strengthening with the minimum addition of 
weight. 

7. When the gas holder is empty, the whole apparatus is within the tank and none appears above ground. 

8. The method of construction is simplicity itself. 

9. The stability of a 6as holder constructed upon this system when under wind pressure, is at least equal 
to, and from experiments and calculations made, is far in excess of that of a holder of the same dimensions 
guided by the elaborate £uide framing at present in use. 

10. Tilting or over-turnin6 of the <5as holder is, under the patented system, rendered utterly imjoossible, thus 
accidents of that particular kind can never occur. 

11. The plan adapts itself to telescoping to any reasonable extent, and enables very shallow holders or 
lifts to be employed with perfect stability. 

Another advantage mi<5ht well be 6iven and that is that there are no limits to the different dimensions that 
can be built. And thei'e is never any trouble from wind, as they will all stand with safety a wind pressure of 
50 pounds per square foot. There is no trouble from the accumulation of snow on one side of the top, as a heavy 
side load will in no wise cramp the holder and need not be removed unless the pressure is increased too much. 


149 


FUEL AND ILLUMINATING GAS. 


The enormous consumption of natural gas in the last decade has advanced the demand, in civilized countries, 
for a fuel gas at least fifty years. The invention of appliances for burning gas in the numberless technical 
uses to which it has been applied as a fuel has made the demand for an artificial gas, to supply not only those 
places in which the now failing supply of natural gas is being used, but also all other places in general through¬ 
out the whole civilized world. In the present state of the art of manufacturing gas the changes which must 
come to the gas works in all our cities of moderate size and larger cities is a matter of vital interest to the owner 
and manager of these works at the present time. It is no longer a question of candle power alone, but with the 
number of heat units per cubic foot of gas produced. Natural gas is the highest heating gas known, and as 
yet there is no indication of any method of producing it artificially on a commercial scale. Therefore, we 
must turn to the next highest heating gas per cubic foot, which is coal gas. 

There has been developed in the last fifteen years a system of manufacturing gas from an entirely different 
standpoint than the ordinary coal gas process. This is the bi-product coke oven. This oven is now so far 
developed that a blast furnace coke can be produced from a given coal, which is at least 10 per cent, better for 
foundry purposes, and at the very least as good for blast furnace purposes as coke made in the bee-hive oven 
from a similar coal. Further, there is obtained from 10 percent, to 14 per cent, more coke in the bi-product 
oven, from the same amount of coal, than that in the bee-hive oven ; and still further, a part or all of the gas can 
be saved, together with all the ammonia and tar. This is very important, especially when it comes to the 
question of fuel gas. The ovens were not primarily developed as gas producers, but as coke producers, the gas 

being burned around the ovens, and the excess used for steam raising purposes after the tar, ammonia and 

150 



benzole were all extracted. In the manufacture of coal gas for fuel purposes, in such quantities as will be 
demanded in the large cities, the first question which confronts the manager is the disposal of large quantities 
of gas house coke. 

The full depth bi-product oven, as shown in the diagram, is the logical solution of the problem of fuel 
gas production in conjunction with a soft coal water gas machine, which carbonizes its own coal into coke, 
removing all the volatile matter as gas, and all the tar as gas and coke. The la.rger the city the greater the de¬ 
mand for blast furnace and foundry coke, and good quality of crushed coke, besides the transportation of soft coal 
in quantity is cheaper than the transportation of coke, and the city with a plant of the above description, if not 
able to sell all the coke produced within its limits, either for foundry or blast furnace purposes, or as crushed 
coke to take the place of anthracite, usually has a nearby outlet for the sale of coke to some blast furnace, and 
blast furnaces, as is well known, consume enormous quantities of coke. 

The full depth coke oven is operated on about 8 per cent, of fuel of the coal carbonized, the ovens being fired 
with a producer, either of type shown in illustration, or with the Monel producer (which is the highest type 
made, yielding 135,000 to 140,000 cubic feet of gas per ton of slack, of 40 per cent, combustible and 80 to 100 
pounds of sulphate of ammonia). One oven will carbonize six and one-half tons of coal per 24 hours, producing, 
from Pittsburgh gas-coal about 70 per cent, of good blast furnace coke. The gas is all saved and treated by the 
ordinary methods ; the tar is generally about 75 per cent, of that produced by the ordinary coal gas bench, the 
difference being in the fact that the tarry gas vapors have to rise through a large bed of incandescent coke, and 
the fixed carbon, which is always present in the gas house tar, is retained in the coke. Therefore, the tar made 
from these furnaces contains a great deal less free carbon than the ordinary gas tar. 

The ovens produce about the same amount of ammonia that is obtained in the ordinary coal gas practice, 
while, if the gas is being used for fuel purposes, the benzole can be removed, which amounts, on our American 


151 



THE NEW DOUBLE CIRCULAR APPARATUS (3,000,000 C. F. PER DAY CAPACITY) OF THE ROSE-HASTINGS SOFT COAL GAS SYSTEM. 


152 































































































































































































































































































































coals, to from one and a half to two gallons to the ton of coal carbonized. This benzole can be used to enrich the 
smaller portion of gas which is used for illuminating purposes, if so desired. 

From the present knowledge of gas manufacturing appliances, this seems to be the logical and comin6 
method for the production of gas for the average daily production of the amount of gas consumed yearly. It is 
not practical to build a plant of this kind of sufficient capacity to produce all the gas necessary for the compar¬ 
atively few very cold days that we have in the United States. It is, therefore, necessary to add to a plant of this 
type a soft coal water gas apparatus as an auxiliary or “ blizzard ” machine. The one that has made the most 
headway.in this direction of the ideal of water gas manufacture is the Rose-Hastings soft coal water gas system. 
The ideal or perfection of a machine of this kind is one which produces its own coke by the absorption of heat 
from the water gas at the time of its formation, and the conveying of the coal gas so produced away with the 
water gas formed, and converting all the tar into permanent gas and carbon. The Rose-Hastings machine has 
been very successful in this line of development, and is the proper auxiliary to the full depth coke oven. This 
machine can be run without oil, producing a very good gas, in which the per cent, carbon of monoxide will not 
be greater than that of the marsh gas. They have produced, at Louisville, Ky., in their large fuel plant, a twenty 
candle-power gas with very high heating capacity, one thousand feet of gas requiring about 2 gallons of oil, 39 
pounds of coal and 5.57 pounds of coke. An illustration of this machine is given, the general type and appear¬ 
ance of which is well known to gas managers. 

It is of interest to know that this machine was first started in Pittsburgh, and that the full depth coke oven 
was also developed here. 


153 


THE JUNKERS CALORIMETER 

AS A MEASURING INSTRUMENT FOR PRACTICAL MEN. 


The Calorimeter constructed by the undersigned is intended as a useful measuring instrument for those who 
have to do with the production or employment of gaseous fuel. 

Everywhere that gas is employed for heating purposes—that is to say, for producing a given amount of 
heat, the heating value of the same, i. e., the number of calories produced per unit of volume of the gas when 
thoroughly consumed is particularly suited as a standard for measuring the economical value, and therefore 
also the price of the gas. The knowledge of the heating value is therefore of importance, and the easy determina¬ 
tion of the same is the more desirable, as the use of gaseous fuel has become of great importance, and at the 
present time is rapidly increasing. 

Ten per cent., and more, of the illuminating gas supplied by gas works is now used for heating purposes— 
for cooking, warming rooms, ironing, gas engines, &c. In some towns, in fact, as much gas for heating is drawn 
from the mains as for illuminating. Illuminating gas is even entirely diverted from its original object of direct 
illumination by the newest epoch-making discovery, Auer’s Incandescent Gaslight. In this lamp the gas 
burns with a non-illuminating flame, and really serves as heating gas for heating the incandescent body. 
Owing to this use of illuminating gas, the heating value, as well as the illuminating power, will demand in 
future the attention of gas engineers. Whilst formerly they employed a Photometer exclusively, they now 
require a Calorimeter as well. The use of gaseous fuel is also increasing in importance in large industries. 
Reference may briefly be made to the production of generator gas, water gas, Dowson gas; further, to the heat¬ 
ing gases recovered as bi-products in several processes, such as coke ovens, blast furnaces, &c. 


i 54 



In spite of the practical importance of the determination of the heating value, it has been hitherto employed 
only on a very small scale by practical men, by reason of the difficulty and inconvenience of the methods 
hitherto employed. The method of gas analysis is inconvenient, because the gas employed for industrial 
purposes is composed of several kinds of 6as, some of which are very difficult to determine. The method of 
direct combustion and measurement of the heat developed was hitherto still less suited for practical use, as 
Calorimeters were only scientific instruments, exact, but very inconyenient and requiring much time, and 
only skillful and experienced experimenters could work with them. 

These drawbacks are removed by the foregoing Calorimeter, which, whilst it is not inferior in exactness to 
the most scientific instrument, is very simple in its handling, requires very little time for taking a measure¬ 
ment, and may be attended to without .further preparation by an inexperienced person. It has further in 
many cases the very valuable property, which is inherent in no other Calorimeter, of enabling a continuous 
determination of the heating value to be made, and of therefore continuously showing the fluctuations in 
the heating value. 

Besides determining the economical value of a heating gas, the Calorimeter may be employed as a useful 

instrument in many other cases, as it yields by means of the heating value a number of other indications of all 

kinds, taken either directly or indirectly therefrom, in the same way as, for instance, the indicator of a steam 

engine affords, besides the amount of work performed, indications as to the steam distribution, leakage in the 

steam pipes, &c. The Calorimeter can, therefore, serve for controlling the mode of working of the gas producer, 

and of the separate periods of working this apparatus (lighting gas, generator gas, or the like producer, coke 

ovens, blast furnaces, &c.); further, for fixing the working degree of the apparatus for heating purposes, or 

power production. Especially in the testing of gas motors this Calorimeter is of very great importance. The 

mere determining of the consumption of gas is not decisive for the value of a motor, as the heating value of 

illuminating gas from the same gas works fluctuates between wider limits even than does the consumption of 

155 


gas of equal value by different patterns of motors. The conditions are similar in the testing of the incandescent 
bodies in incandescent gas lights. A determination of the consumption of gas per unit of light developed is 
insufficient without the simultaneous determination of the heating value of the gas employed, as in this kind 
of light production the heat developed is alone of value, and therefore the consumption, not of gas, but of calories 
per unit of light is decisive. 

The importance of the instrument has been largely recognized by prominent practical men. 

Mr. W. von Ochelhaeuser, general director of the German Continental Gas Co. of Dessau, stated in a paper at 
the “Verein fur Gewerbfleiss,” Berlin, on November 7th, 1892, on “Coal Gas Works as centres for light, heat, 
and power—a step towards increase of holidays’’ (ein Beitrag zur Sakularfeier):— 

“Before, however, we quit the domain of power distribution by means of coal gas works, it may be briefly 
mentioned that Mr. Junkers, civil engineer, of Dessau, has succeeded in constructing a Calorimeter which allows 
of the heating value of the various kinds of combustible gases being ascertained not only in an extremely short 
time, but also with an exactness which fully suffices for practical men. I reserve at present any further 
description of this ingenious and simple apparatus, because a thorough publication of the same may shortly be 
expected. It is, therefore, possible in future that the makers of gas motors will state exactly the heat required 
for their motors in calories, instead of cubic meters. Seeing the requirement in cubic meters is only a calcula¬ 
tion as to space, and not of value, and as the heating value of various coal gases differs very considerably at 
various places, the most respectable manufacturers must refuse precisely on this ground to give fixed guarantees 
on the consumption of a gas, the heating value of which is not determined. The measurement of the heating 
value of gas is thus obtained, and may be compared between one town and another in a much more objective 
manner than light is by means of the photometer, even although we possess an excellent instrument in the 
photometer recently constructed by our Imperial physical-technical establishment, which stands unrivaled in 


156 


exactness and in the possibility of comparing light of different colors. Nevertheless even here the eye of the 
observer remains a subjective comparing factor, whilst in the new Calorimeter only two simple temperature 
readings, a weighing of the water, and a gas measurement, are necessary. The multiplication of the difference 
of temperature, and the quantity of water, divided by the quantity of 6as, yields at once the calories of the gas 
tested. ” 

In conclusion, it may also be stated that the Calorimeter is suitable for determining the heating value of 
liquid and also of solid fuel. The experiment as to the weighing devices necessary for the substances to be 
examined are at present not yet concluded. 

HUGO JUNKERS, Civil Engineer. 

Dessau, January, 1893. 


157 


DESCRIPTION OF JUNKERS’ CALORIMETER. 


The determination of the heating value of combustible £ases takes place in this Calorimeter by a state of 
permanency bein£ established in the same, in which the heat developed from a constantly burning flame is 
entirely transmitted to an evenly flowing stream of water. 

For making use of the Calorimeter, the following adjuncts are necessary : — 

1. A water pipe capable of supplying from one to three litres per minute. 

2. Two exact thermometers from 0 up to 50 decrees C. and divided in .1 decree for the water inlet and 
outlet, and an ordinary thermometer up to 30 or 50 decrees for the waste £ases. 

3. As correct a £as meter as possible, with a lar£e dial and a thermometer. 

4. A measuring vessel or a balance for exactly determining a quantity of water varying from about one to 
five litres, and also another balance for 50 to 100 cubic centimeters. 

5. An india-rubber tubing for conveying water or £as. Plu^s of india-rubber or cork for holding the 
thermometer. 

It is also desirable to have— 

6. A pressure regulator for the inflowing 6as, in case the pressure in the main fluctuates. 

ARRANGEMENT OF THE CALORIMETER. 

The Calorimeter is placed in such a way that both the thermometers for the water inlet and outlet may be 
easily observed. The vent for the escape of the waste 6 as must be protected against the inrush of air. The £as 


158 






4 J^olaA* vw*Tl\, 

2 (jOJi/mL&n. 

3 jfetjpA&xJjyi of (j^Kd , 

H J b+h*+*/ ^Ctl UJoXLk, A-niliZ . 

5 ch^t 

y • • ^6 

6 Iti’cJl'ijwC 
zzz %\oo/>£> 


*• — — — — — 


JUNKERS’ CALORIMETER. 


159 























































































































































meter is so arranged that the index may be observed whilst the water running from the Calorimeter is simul¬ 
taneously caught for the purpose of being measured, so that the readings may all be taken by one person. 

The centre nozzle a is connected with the water main by means of an india-rubber tubing. The overflow 
nozzle b is provided with a runaway pipe, which must, however be so arranged that the flow is visible, so that 
it can be ascertained that the overflow is really taking place during the measuring (such a device may be 
formed by inserting a short glass tube in the pipe). The nozzle c, for discharging the water from the Calori¬ 
meter, is connected with a tubing in such a way that the water discharged may be easily, and without any 
splashing, conveyed for measurement into a vessel held ready for the purpose. 

A glass is placed under the small tube d, in order to catch the water of condensation. 

After the thermometers have been placed in position, the regulating cock e is opened (the finder of the 
dial being in a vertical position) and the Calorimeter is filled until the liquid runs from c. 

By this means the freedom from leakage of the inner part of the apparatus may be ascertained by there 
being no leakage of water from the small pipe d. 

STARTING THE CALORIMETER. 

The use of a Bunsen burner is recommended for gases of high volumetric heating power (illuminating gas); 
a simple metal tube serves as burner for gases of low volumetric heating power (hydrogen, carbonic oxide, etc.) 

As regards the size of the flame, it may serve as a basis that the Calorimeter can absorb an amount of heat 
equal to about 2,500 calories per hour—on the average about 1,000—1,500 calories. The lower the heating 
value, so much the greater will be the consumption per hour, for instance, in the case of— 

Illuminating Gas, ... 100—400 Litres. 

Hydrogen, - 200 —800 “ 

Dowson Gas, - 400—1600 “ 


160 


Before proceeding to take the measurements, the freedom from leakage of the whole £as pipe must always 
be tested by turning off the tap at the burner, and observing whether the index cf the £as meter remains 
stationary. The water supply is then turned on, and care must be taken that water flows from the overflow b. 

In order to avoid explosions from the entrance of unconsumed <5as into the combustion chamber, the burner 
must be taken out and lighted outside before opening the 6 as tap, and only replaced when the Calorimeter is 
entirely filled, that is to say when the water appears at the discharge pipe c. The burner must be inserted so 
far in the combustion chamber that the flame is at a distance of from 13 to 15 centimeters from the under 
ed6e of the socket. 

The throttle valve, attached to the waste £as discharge nozzle, has for its object to allow of the excess of air 
bein£> l’e^ulated during the combustion. It is not usually necessary to have any particular adjustment for the 
air supply ; the valve may be either half or entirely opened. 

After the insertion of the burner, the temperature of the water discharge rises, until, in a few minutes, 
the permanent temperature is attained. 

The tap t has for its object to allow the quantity of water passing through to be varied, and thereby the 
difference in temperature between the water at the inlet and at the outlet (in ordinary cases a difference of 10 
to 20 decrees C. is preferable). Care must particularly be taken that the temperature does not rise so hi^h that 
the mercury reaches the top and bursts the tube of the thermometer. 

TAKING THE READING. 

The reading off must be suitably performed in the following manner:— 

When the pointer of the 6as meter passes 0, or a whole number, the water flowing from c is run 
into a collecting vessel until the pointer has made an entire revolution, or has passed a 6iven number 
of whole litres. During this time (1 to 5 minutes) the temperature of the water is read off on the inlet and 


161 


outlet thermometers at regular intervals, in order to ascertain the average temperature in the case of small vari¬ 
ations. The water collected is weighed on a good balance. 

o O 

The heating value of gas is then : 


WT 


H =- 


G 


if H be taken as the heating value per litre in calories. W the amount of water collected in kg, G the amount of 


gas given off in litres, T the difference of temperature between the water at the inlet and outlet. 
The following readings may serve as an explanation : 


Gas Meter. 


Inflow Outflow 

Thermometer. Thermometer. 


45 1 


8-77° 


26-75 


Quantity 
of Water. 


26-70 

26-82 


26-80 


26-75 


55 1 


8-77° 26-80° 3025 g 


10 1 Average 8’77° Average 26'77° 

o o 


It stands, therefore, that W=3 025 


T=26-77—8-77=18 
G=10 
3-025. 18 

H=-=5-445 Calories. 

10 


162 




If, instead, of a balance, a measuring vessel of known contents be employed, the water discharged from c is 
ran into the same and the quantity of gas passing through is observed until the vessel is filled. For instance : 

Gas Meter. 


9.76 1. 


Inflow 

Thermometer. 

Outflow 

Thermometer. 

Quantity 
of Water. 

9-32 

36-21 


9-31 

36'25 

. 

9-31 

36-22 


9-32 

36-19 


9-32 

36-24 

2 litres 

Average 9-32 Average 36'22 

cT> O 



Therefore W 2 

T=36-22—9-32 26-90 

G=9-76 


2 . 26-9 

H=-=5 513 Calories. 

9-76 

In the (highest) heating value thus calculated, the latent heat of the steam produced by the combustion of 
the gas is included. This steam, which results from the combustion of the hydrogen contained in the gas con¬ 
sumed, is condensed in the tubes of the Calorimeter and runs away through the small pipe d. 

In certain cases, however, where gaseous fuel is employed, this water escapes in a vaporized condition, for 
instance, in the case of lighting or heating by means of gas, or in gas motors. 

In such cases it is important to ascertain the (low) heating value without this condensation heat. The 
difference between the high and low heating value is often very considerable, and amounts in the illuminating 
gas from the Dessau gas works, for instance, to 10 percent, of the high heating value. 


163 





The amount of warmth derived from the water of condensation may very easily be determined by collecting 
the water which flows from the small pipe d. As the quantity of this water is small, its calculation should be 
taken over a lar6e quantity of £as, say 30—60 litres. About .6 calories of heat must also be deducted for 1 cubic 
centimeter of water. 

For instance, if the above reading shows for 60 litres of gas 55 cubic centimeters of water of condensation, 

55 

That makes for 11. 6as-£ of water of condensation. 

60 


55 

= — -6 — ’550 calories. 
60 

The low heating value is therefore 

5'455 — -550 = 4-895 calories. 

The price of the apparatus, inclusive of burner, is fixed at £18. 






Court House. 


















THE LE CHATELIER PYROMETER. 


This pyrometer, which was designed by M. Le Chatelier, is based upon the 
current produced by the heating of the junction of a Thermo-Electric Couple. It is 
capable of measuring very high temperatures ; almost those approaching the melt¬ 
ing point of platinum. It should therefore be found indispensable to the manu¬ 
facturer who desires an accurate knowledge and control of his temperatures. 

It consists of a Thermo-Electric Couple and a D’Arsonval Galvanometer. The 
wires which compose the couple are one of pure platinum, and the other platinum 
alloyed with 10 per cent, rhodium, both of which are perfectly homogeneous. 

For use, the couple, which has been first connected with the Galvanometer, is 
inserted into furnace or oven, when immediately a current is produced and meas¬ 
ured on the Galvanometer scale, from which the temperature is readily deduced. 
The Pyrometer has the following advantages : 

1st. It is adapted for a very large range of temperature, i. e ., from 200° to 3000° Fahr., but is intended more 
especially for high temperatures such as are met with in the manufacture of metals, chemicals, porcelain 
ware, heat of carbonization of coal, etc. 

2d. It is almost instantaneous in its indications, five seconds being sufficient time to subject the couple to 
any stationary temperature ; or the couple may, if desired, be left permanently in the furnace or oven, indi¬ 
cating at all times the exact temperature, and thus enabling the operator to keep an hourly record of same. 

3d. The metals which compose the couple are not affected by gases and hence will not become oxidized or 
react chemically on each other at high temperatures ; nor are they altered in their thermo-electric properties 
by rough usage or bends. 



167 
































































From the above statements it will be readily seen 
that the instrument is of great accuracy and dura¬ 
bility. 

The measurement of the temperature is made by 
means of a D’Arsonval Galvanometer, contained in 
two wooden boxes, which are screwed against a cen¬ 
tral wall or slab with handle for portability, as shown 
in Fig. 1. 

Fig. 2 shows the two boxes unscrewed from the 
central slab and placed in their respective positions 
against the wall. 

Box A contains the Galvanometer proper and is 
also provided with set screws and a small plumb bob, 
so that it may be set vertically. 

Box B contains the lamp, having a lens and window with cross hairs for throwing an image upon the 
Galvanometer mirror in Box A, which in turn reflects it back upon the scale in Box B. Box B has also two 
set screws for adjusting it vertically. The two boxes are set one meter apart. 

The current set up by the Thermo-Electric Couple (no battery is used) enters the Galvanometer through the 
two binding posts, Box A, and is reflected upon the scale, Box B. This scale is graduated in millimeters and it 
is necessary therefore that a curve be made reducing these millimeters to decrees Fahrenheit or Centigrade. 

From the above description this Pyrometer may seem too scientific an instrument for every day use, but 
such is not the case, and we recommend it to all manufacturers using high temperatures, which it is essential 
to control. 



168 







































































Carve Bi-Produet Ovens, Lanehester 































Carve Bi-Produet Ovens, Lanchester. 












CARVE OVENS. 


The two illustrations marked Lanchester By-Product Ovens illustrate the last plant built by this well- 
known Company in England. F. Carve, who died recently, was the father of the by-product coke oven, having 
erected in 1862 by-product ovens which are still in operation. The production of coke suitable for blast fur¬ 
nace purposes from bituminous coal and at the same time saving the gas, or part of it, the tar, and the ammonia, 
and producing coke that is not only as good as beehive oven coke, but increases the yield from 10 to 14 per 
cent., was a result very much desired even as early as 1860. When Carve succeeded in making a suitable coke 
he was met by all sorts of opposition and unbelief. There is in fact a trace of this prejudice left even to the 
present day. The Carve Company, however, was formed, and the production of blast furnace coke was con¬ 
tinued in a large and successful way in the Ter-Noir Province of France. From this beginning has been 
developed the large and successful company that now controls and operates the Carve systems in England and 
France. Henry Simon, of Manchester, England, controls the agency of the Carve system for his country and 
prosecuted the building of these ovens under the name cf the Simon-Carve Oven. 

There have been erected in the neighborhood of Durham and Middlesboro several batteries of these ovens, 
one of which has been in operation for over twelve years. The latest plant is the one illustrated in this article, 
and is being operated very successfully. The Company has always operated on the line of the production of 
good blast furnace coke first, and the by-products, second. The production of metallurgical coke has been more 
successful with this than any other oven, with perhaps the exception of the Huessener, which is a modification 
of the Carve system. 


173 



The construction, of the oven is very simple and at the same time very durable. The first battery of ovens 
near Durham, England, were in constant operation for twelve years before any repairs whatever were made on 
the oven proper, and the repairs at that time were due to no fault of the oven, or the wearing out of it, but to 
faulty work by the bricklayers. This is an exceptionally 6ood record and speaks well for the simplicity and 
durability of their construction, the condensing apparatus, etc., bein£ very practical in its construction, with¬ 
out bein6 expensive. 

The Company has offices at 75 Rue Lafayette, Paris, France. They have a lar^e number of ovens located 
at St. Ettienne, France; at Bilbao, Spain, and in the north of England. The a6ent in this country is Mr. James 
Gardner, Jr., Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Note .—The Editor regrets exceedingly that a more complete article written for this space failed to arrive as 
expected. It was written by the Carve Manager in North England, forwarded to Paris for approval and then to 
Mr. Henry Simon, and the delays have been such that it is too late for press. 


174 


Index to Tables. 


INDEX. 


Air, Composition of Page 8 

Amylaeetate Lamp, ... 13 

Aerometers, Different Rules for Calculations, 15 

Alloys, ..... 25 

Air, Effect by Admixture on Candle Power of Gas, 27 
Ammonia, .... 29 

Ammonium Sulphate, ... 35 

“ “ Specific Gravity of Solution of 36 

Solubility of . . 36 

British Heat Unit, (B. H. U.) . . 5 

Boilers, Horse-power of 22 

Birmingham Gauge, ... 23 

Boiling Point of Water at Different Pressures, 25 

Baume Hydrometer, Table for Crude Liquor, 32-33 

Degrees, .... 32-33 

Comparison with Twaddell and 
Specific Gravity, ... 34 

Centigrade-Kilo System, ... 5 

Caloric, ..... 5 

Calorie, ..... 5 

Caloric Volume, .... 7-9 

Carbon (Heat Units), ... 8 

Coal Gas, analysis, ... 9 

Chimney, Size of . . . . 11 


Carcel Lamp, ... . . Page 13 

Candle, Sperm, .... 13 

Paraffine, .... 13 

Stearine, . . . . 13 

Carbon Dioxid, Effect on Candle-power of Gas, 13 

Circles, Areas of .... 14 

Sides of Squares of same Area, . 14 

Conversion of Aerometrie Degrees into Specific 

Gravity, . . . . 15 

Critical Point, .... 18 

Centigrade, Conversion to Fahrenheit, . 24 

Co-efficient of Expansion of Metals, . 25 

Conductivity of Metals for Heat and Electricity, 25 
Combustion, Rate of 26 

Candle-power, Effect on by Admixing Air, . 27 

Cyanogen, .... 29 

Diameter of Pipes, Equalizing the • 16 

Degrees, Twaddell, ■ 33 

“ Baume, . 32-33 

English Light Unit, . 13 

“ Weights into Metric, • • 17 

Expansion of Pipes, Linear, • • 19 

Co-efficient of 25 

Electricity, Conductivity of in Metals, . 25 


2 







Fahrenheit, Pound System, Page 5 

French System, .... 5 

Feed Water Heating, . 10 

French Light Unit, . • 13 

Factor of Safety, . 20 

Fahrenheit, Conversion into Centigrade, 24 

German Light Unit, ... 13 

Gas, Value of Under Different Pressures, • 15 

“ Registration of Meter Under Different Pres¬ 
sures, • 15 

Gas, Velocity of in Pipes, . . 16 

and Quantity of Delivered in Pipes, 16 

“ Pipe, Cost, Thickness and Weight of 22 

Gauge, Birmingham, • • . 23 

American, or Brown & Sharpe, 23 

Washburn & Moen, . • 23 

Trenton Iron Co. • ■ . 23 

Prentiss, • 23 

“ Old English, ... 23 

Gas, Flow of, in Pipes, ... 26 

“ Proper Size of Apparatus, • 27 

Works Apparatus, Normal Size of • 27 

“ Holder, Floating Weights of • 28 

“ Liquor, . 29 

Treatment of 29 

Composition of • • 30-31 

Heat Units, .... 5-11 

“ Value, . • 7-9 

“ Unit Table, .... 9 


Page 9-10 
9-10 
9-10 


Heat Units, Coal, 


Comparative Value Coal Oil and Gas, 10 

of Water at Different Temperatures, 10 

Hefner Light Unit, ... 13 

Horse-power of Boilers, ... 22 

Heat, Conductivity of in Metals, . 25 

Horse-power, Different Values, 26 

Iron, Wrought, Table of Weights, . . 23 

Joints, Efficiency of Riveted 20-21 

“ Margin and Lap of 21 

Comparative Efficiency of 21 

Light Units, .... 13 

Lamps, Carcel, 13 

Amylaeetate, . 13 

Light Units, Comparison of Units, Normal, 13 

Molecular-Gram System, . 5 

Munich Light Unit, . • 13 

Mercury, Equivalent of, with Water, 15 

Metric Ton, • . • 17 

Measures, Metric into English, . 17 

Equivalent Numbers, . . 17 

Metals, Relative Conductivity of, for Heat and 

Electricity, .... 25 

Nitrogen in Coke, ... 29 

Paraffine, . . 13 

Pressure, Registration of Meter under Different 15 

Gas under Different . . 15 










Pressure Equivalent of, in Water and Mercury, Page 15 
Pipes, Equalizing Diameters, . 16 

“ Contents of Different . 18 

Pipe, Standard Dimensions, . 19 

“ Linear Expansion of . 19 

“ Cast Iron, Thickness and Weight of 22 

Pipes, Flow of Gas in 26 

Rivets, Efficiency of 20-21 

Rose Metal, .... 25 

Specific Heats, .... 8 

Stacks, Size of . . . . 11 

Steam, Properties of Saturated, . 11-12 

Sperm Candle, . . . 13 

Stearine Candle, .... 13 

Specific Gravity, Different Aerometers, • 15 

Safety, Factor of . • 20 

Steel Plates, Margin and Lap of 21 

Steel, Table of Weights, . . 23 

Steam, Velocity of ... 26 

Specific Gravity of Crude Liquor, . . 32 

Specific Gravity Compared with Baume & Twaddell, 34 
Sulphate of Ammonium, ... 35 

Specific of Solution, 36 

Solubility of, . 36 

Ton, Metric, . . . 17 

Thermometers, Conversion of . 24 

“ Centigrade to Fahr. 24 
Fahr. to Centigrade, 24 
Thermometers, Comparative Tables of 24 


Twaddell Hydrometer for Measuring Crude Liquors, 33 
Twaddell Degrees, ... 33 

Compared with Baume and Spe¬ 
cific Gravity, .... 34 

Units, Heat, .... 5-11 

“ Light, .... 13 

“ English, .... 13 

“ French, . . . . 13 

“ German, .... 13 

“ Hefner, ..... 13 

“ Munich, . . . 13 

“ of Horse-power, ... 26 

Volume Calorie, .... 7-9 

Velocity of Steam, ... 26 

Water, Gas Analyses, . • • 9 

Heating, • 10 

Weight of ... 10 

Weight of Water, 10 

Water, Equivalent of Pressure with Mercury, 15 

Weights and Measures, . . • 17 

Metric into English, 17 

Water, Weight of 18 

Water, Boiling Point at Different Pressures, 25 

Weight of Water, .... 18 

“ Various Substances, 18 

“ Wrought Iron, 23 

“ “ Steel, .... 23 

Weights of Gas Holders, . . 28 

Errata—Page 26—Heat of Barometer should be Height 
of Barometer; Bi should be By. 







HEAT UNITS. 


The heating value of any combustible, like its specific gravity, must be based on some unit. There exist, 
at present three different heat units, without any specific name for each, with the exception of the British 
Heat Unit (B. H. U.), so that they are constantly confused and used without any specification as to which 
system they belong. Hence it is often difficult or impossible to determine which system is used. 

These three systems are : First.—The Centigrade or Continental system, where the Centigrade thermom¬ 
eter is used, here the term applied to the heat unit is the caloric. Second.—The British system, in England, 
where Fahrenheit is mostly used in scientific research; the term used is the British heat unit (B. H. U.) Third. 
—The molecule-gram system or the Thomsen system. In describing these different systems separately, the 
same example will be used in each, viz., marsh gas, in order to show clearly the differences numerically in the 
different systems. 

First.—The unit of the French system, the calorie, is the amount of heat required to raise one kilo water one 
degree Centigrade. Therefore the number of kilos of water that are raised one degree Centigrade by the com- 
plete combustion of one kilo of a combustible gives the number of calorics or its caloric value, e. g., one kilo 
marsh gas burned completely to water and carbon dioxid (C O' 2 ) will raise 13,244 kilos water one degree Cen- 
tigrade As is readily seen, this same number of calorics would be obtained if pounds of combustible were used 
and pounds of water were heated. This system will be termed for convenience, the Centigrade-Kilo system. 
Abbreviation—C=K. 

Second.— 1 The system used in Great Britain is the same as the French except Fahrenheit degrees are 
substituted for Centigrade ; this decreases the size of one calorie 4-9ths. Therefore the amount of heat 
necessary to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit is one caloric, e. g., one pound of marsh gas burned 
completely to water and carbon dioxid (CO 2 ) will raise 23 661 pounds of water one degree Fahrenheit. This is 
the calorie multiplied by 9-5ths. This caloric is the British heat unit (B. H. U.) and for convenience will be 
termed the Fahrenheit-pound system. Abbreviation, F-P. 

Third.—The molecular-gram system is based on quite a different method of determination, having no fixed 
unit of the quantity employed, in fact every combustible employed is taken in different quantities, unless the 
molecular weight should happen to be the same as the molecular weight of some other substance. A caloric is 
the amount of heat necessary to raise one gram of water one degree Centigrade ; the quantity used is the mole¬ 
cular weight of the substance taken in grams. 


B 


5 



All gases, no matter what their composition, have the same sized molecules ; therefore, a molecule of any 
gas takes up one unit of room. In the molecular-gram system, therefore, the amount of substance used is its 
molecular weight taken in 6rams, and the caloric value of the substance is expressed in the number of grains 
of water that that amount of substance will raise one decree Centigrade, e. g., in marsh gas (CH l ), molecular 
weight 16 ; then 16 grams of marsh gas burned completely to water and carbon dioxid will raise 211,900 
grams of water one degree Centigrade. The caloric value in this case has the advantage of expressing the 
caloric value of the same volumes of substance when in its gaseous state, and conveys quite a different 
meaning. It is the most useful system for general scientific research, but is apt to be misleading to the 
general technical world. It will be readily seen that it can be converted into the C-K. system by dividing the 
total calorics given for any substance by its molecular weight, and is further converted into the F=K. system by 
multiplying this result by 9-5s. For convenience we will term this system the molecular=gram system. 
Abbreviation, M-G. 

Making a comparison of the different values given above, marsh ga.s has its caloric value expressed as 
follows in the different systems : 

C-K. F-P. M-G. 

Marsh gas (CH 4 )--—- 

13 244 23 839 211 900 

These all indicate the same result and are all convertible one into the other; still, when given promiscu¬ 
ously, without any designation as to system, they must certainly be very confusing. The F-P. or the British 
heat unit, is entirely superfluous, and the sooner it is dropped from all classes of heat unit investigations the 
better ; it is only the C-K. system converted into Fahrenheit, and a division of the number 180 will never 
make a clear or useful unit for general and accurate work. There are only two temperatures that can be 
absolutely determined anywhere in the world and be always the same. The first is a mixture of ice and 
water, which has the same temperature (no matter where); hence, it should be zero (0°), as it is on the 
Centigrade thermometer, being the freezing point of water. The second is the temperature at which water is 
converted into steam ; the temperature of steam is the same always under an atmospheric pressure of 30 inches 
mercury or at the sea level; this can be determined anywhere, making the barometric correction, which is 
easily done ; therefore this temperature should be 100°, as it is on the Centigrade scale, -f l-100th is a 
•comprehensive division, and certainly conveys clearer comprehension of unit than Xl-180th, the difference 
between the freezing and boiling point of water on the Fahrenheit scale. 

All three systems are at fault in one respect, which can only be overcome indirectly, as shown below. This 
difficulty is that the figures given in all systems even with the lowest heating substance are high numbers. 
The human mind cannot grasp readily comparisons of high figures and be able, at the same time, to use them 

6 





quickly for comparison. In the tables given below, there has been added another unit for all combustible 
substances, and a second one for gases. A kilo of pure carbon completely burned to carbon dioxid (C 0 2 )=8 080 
C=K.; this number of calorics is taken as a unit or as one heat value, abbreviation H-V., hence: 
Carbon (C.)=l H-V. 

Carbon is the best, as it is the type of all combustibles, and has a middle value among combustibles. Hence 
marsh gas, 13 244 C-K., would equal 13 244-:—8 080=1.63 H=V. 

Marsh gas (C H 4 )=1.63 H=V. 

That is, one pound of marsh gas equals 1.63 pounds of carbon for heating purposes. The decimals are only 
carried out two places ; if five or over in the third place, one is carried up ; if not, it is dropped. This gives a 
quick, intelligent comparison for general technical use, and, it is believed, will be an aid in the general use of 
heat unit comparisons, as they are all based on equal weights. 

In the case of gases or substances which become gases by solution in other gases, another unit is also used ; 
this unit is used exactly as the specific gravity of gases are compared with air, while all the solids are 
compared with water. This unit is hydrogen by volume. Hydrogen has the highest heating value of any 
element or compound, and is the lightest. It is unnecessary to take any given volume, but make the comparison 
direct from the molecular=gram system, as all gases have the same sized molecule. The molecular weight of 
hydrogen is H 2=2, hence, H 2=68 435 M=G.; this is taken for the unit. V=C. is the abbreviation for volume 
caloric ; hence H=1 V=C. 

Marsh gas under the M=G. system=2ll 900, 211 900-f—68 435=3.09 V=C. 

This makes a quick and intelligent comparison, as the numbers are low and easily grasped in the mind, and 
far easier remembered than the higher numbers. 

To estimate the percentage of loss in the practical combustion of any fuel, providing the combustion is 
complete ; the temperature of the products of combustion, where they enter the flue or stack and to which any 
admixed nitrogen or other neutral gases are added, is multiplied by the quantity (weight) of the products of 
combustion multiplied by their specific heats ( see table' below ), plus any latent heat that may be in the 
products of combustion. 

t° = Temperature. 

N = Admixed nitrogen or other gases. 

P = Products of combustion. 

W — Weight of all gases heated. 

s = Specific heat. 

L -—- Latent heat. 

Hence : t° [WiPs+Ns)]+L -Loss in calorics. 


If the quantity of combustible is known with the admixed air the nitrogen is taken usually as 77 per cent, 
by weight. Below, the calculation is made from an average analysis of air with impurities, which shows that 
for every pound of oxygen consumed, 3.329 pounds of nitrogen, are heated. 

Analysis of air containing usual impurities shows : 


Oxygen, 

Nitrogen, 

Impurities, 


By Volume. 

20.94° 

79.02 

0.04 


By Weight. 

23.10% 

76.84 

0.06 


Average weight of 1 liter of air=l. 29306 grams, or 1 cubic foot weighs 565 grains, 
the weight of water volume for volume. 


Air is —l-173d 


SPECIFIC HEAT. 


Calculated under constant pressure and an equal weight of water as unit. 


Air, - 

Carbon dioxid (CO 2 ), = 

Nitrogen (N -), 

Oxygen (0 2 >, 

Water (H 2 0) (Gaseous), 
Water (H 2 0) (Liquid), 
Carbonous Oxid (C 0), 
Sulphurous Oxid (S 0 2 ), 
Hydrogen, 

Ammonia, 


0.2377 

0.1843 

0.2438 

0.2175 

0.4805 

1.0000 at 0°C. 

0.2425 

0.1544 

3.4090 

0.5356 


Note.—The different values used in the above table are taken almost entirely from the original 
works of Julius Thomsen, Berilielot Favre , Silbermann and others. The results used are in nearly all cases 
the average of analyses repeated many times, and are as nearly accurate as it is possible to get them. 
Favre and Silbermann value for carbon (8 080) is used. 


In the following table are given the weights by volume and heat units of the chief combustibles. 


8 


HEAT UNIT TABLE. 

NAME. 

Molecular 

Symbol. 

Atomic 

Weight. 

Molecular 

Weight. 

Products 

of 

Combustion. 

Specific Gravity 
Hydrogen 2. 

Spec ! fic Gravity 
Air 1. 

M 

E 

o re 

Z o 

bo sz 
a> "t_ 

S £ 

Weight of 1 Cu. 

Ft. in Grains. 

Weight of 1 Cu. 

Ft. in Pounds. 

Calorics. C-K. 

Heat Value 

Carbon 1. 

Volume-Caloric 

Hydrogen 1. 

Hydrogen . 

H 2 

1 

o 

H 2 0 

2.0000 

0.06925 

0.08955 

39.1263 

.00559 

34217.5 

4.23 

1.00 

Marsh Gas. 

CH 4 


15.97 

H 2 0-C0 2 

15.974 

0.55300 

0.71506 

312.445 

.04464 

13244. 

1.63 

3.09 

Carbon Monoxid. 

CO 


27.93 

CO 2 

27.937 

0.96715 

1.25058 

546.4397 

.07806 

2441.7 

0.302 

1.00 

Acetylene. 

C 2 H 2 


25.94 

H 2 0-C0 2 

25 947 

0.89829 

1.16148 

507.5338 

.07255 

11923. 

1.48 

4.53 

Aethylene. 

C 2 H 4 


27.94 

H 2 0-C0 2 

27.947 

0.96749 

1.25103 

546.6318 

.07809 

11884. 

1.47 

4.86 

Aethane. 

C 2 H 6 


29.94 

H 2 0-C0 2 

29.947 

1.03675 

1.34058 

585.7637 

08368 

12347. 

1.53 

5.41 

Propylene. 

C 3 H 6 


41.91 

H 2 0-C0 2 

41.921 

1.45124 

1.87654 

819 9506 

.11713 

11731. 

1.45 

7.21 

Butylene. 

C‘H 8 


55.89 

H 2 0-C0 2 

55.894 

1.93488 

2.50J90 

1093.2072 

.15617 

11619. 

1.44 

9.51 

Allylene.. 

C 3 H 4 


39.92 

H 2 0-C0 2 

39.921 

1.38194 

1.78692 

780.7961 

.11154 

11690. 

1.45 

6.83 

Benzole. 

C 6 H 6 


77.82 

H 2 0-C0 2 

77.822 

2.69463 

3.48429 

1522.4659 

.21749 

10102. 

1.25 

11.51 

Naphthalene. 

C 10 H S 


127.7 

H 2 OC0 2 

127.722 

4.39880 

5.68783 

2485.322 

.35505 

9618.7 

1.19 

17.98 

Sulphuretted Hydrogen. ... 

H 2 S 


33.98 

S0 2 -H 2 0 

33.981 

1.17664 

1.52147 

664.802 

.09497 

3488. 

0.43 

1.73 

Carbon Bi-Sulphid. 

CS 2 


75.93 

C0 2 -S0 2 

75.931 

2.62580 

3.39980 

1483.577 

.21194 

3404. 

0.421 

3.79 

Water Gas. 


*See analysis below. 

15.562 

0.53883 

0.69678 

304.438 

.04349 

4839.7 

0.5989 

0.936 

Coal Gas. 


*See analysis below. 

11.332 

0.39236 

0.50739 

186 620 

.02666 

13817. 

1.710 

1.924 

Ammonia. 

NH 3 


17.01 

H 2 0-N 2 

17.010 

0.58901 

0.76163 

332.790 

47543 

5332. 

0.659 

1.33 

Air. 





14.444 

1 00000 

1 29306 

565.000 

.08071 




Nitrogen. 

N 2 

14.01 

28.02 


28.021 

0.97026 

1.25461 

548.197 

.07831 




Oxygen.. 

O 2 

15.96 

31.92 


31.920 

1.10531 

1.42923 

624.500 

.08921 




Carbon Dioxid. 

CO 2 


43.89 


43.892 

1.51980 

1.96519 

858.687 

. 12267 




Carbon from Wood . 

C 2 

11.97 

23.94 

CO 2 






8080 

1 000 


Anthracite — Penna. 




C0 2 -H 2 0 






7844 4 

0.971 

. 1 

Bituminous Coal . 




C0 2 -H 2 0 






8391.7 

1 038 


Cannel Coal .. 




C0 2 -H 2 0 






6365 5 

0.788 


Furnace Coke . 




C0 2 -H 2 0 






7019 4 

0 868 


Gas House Coke. 




C0 2 -H 2 0 






7000 

0 866 


Coal Tar . . 




C0 2 -H 2 0 






8667 

1 073 


Cmdfi Petrnlfinm ,. 




C0 2 -H 2 0 






11094 1 

1 373 
















* Note. 


Hydrogen. 

Marsh Gas. 

Illuminants. 

Carbon Monoxid. 
Carbon Dioxid... 
Nitrogen. 


Water Gas. 

(uNCARBURETTEo). 

Coal Gas. 

. 49.2% 

50.28% 

0.3 

36.95 

Trace. 

6.34 

. 43.8 

4.37 

2.7 

None. 

4.0 

Trace. 


9 






















































































































































COMPARATIVE VALUE OF COAL, OIL AND GAS. 

In the best practice, with boilers of proper 
construction and proportioned to the work : 

1 lb. of coal will evaporate 10 lbs. of water at 212° 
atmospheric pressure. 

1 lb. of oil will evaporate 16 lbs. of water at 212° 
atmospheric pressure. 

1 lb. of natural gas will evaporate 20 lbs. of water 
at 212° atmospheric pressure. 

1 lb. coal will equal - 11.225 cu. ft. nat. gas. 

2000 lbs.(1 ton) will equal 22 450.00 “ “ “ “ 

1 lb. of oil will equal - 18.00 “ “ “ “ 

1 bbl.(42 gals.) will equal 5 310.00 “ “ “ “ 

1.125 cu. ft nat. gas will evaporate 1 lb. of water. 


SAVING OF FUEL BY HEATING FEED-WATER. 
(IN PER CENT., STEAM AT SIXTY POUNDS.) 


Initial 


FINAL TEMPERATURE OF FEED 

WATER. 

tem.of 








water. 

120 

140 

160 

180 

200 

250 

300 

32° 

7.50 

9.20 

10.90 

12.36 

14.30 

19.03 

22.90 

35 

7.25 

8.96 

10.66 

12.09 

14.09 18.34 

22.60 

40 

6.85 

8.57 

10.28 

12.00 

13.71 

17.99 

22.27 

45 

6.45 

8.17 

9.90 

11.61 

13.34 

17.64 

21.94 

50 

6.05 

7.71 

9.50 

11.23 

13.00 

17.28 

21.61 

55 

5.64 

7.37 

9.06 

10.85 

13.60 

16.93 

21.27 

60 

5.23 

6.97 

8.72 

10.46 

12.20 

16.58 

20.92 

65 

4.82 

6.56 

8.32 

10.07 

11.82 16.20 

20.58 

70 

4.40 

6.15 

7.91 

9.68 11.43 

15.83 

20.23 

75 

3.98 

5.74 

7.50 

9.28 

11.04 

15.46 

19.88 

80 

3.55 

5 32 

7.09 

8.87 

10.65 

15.08 

19.52 

85 

3.12 

4.90 

6.63 

8.46 

10.25 

14.70 

19.17 

90 

2.68 

4.47 

6.26 

8.06 

9.85 

14.32 

18.81 

95 

2.24 

4.04 

5.84 

7.65 

9.44 

13 94 

18.44 

100 

1.80 

3.61 

5.42 

7.23 

9.03 

13.55 

18.07 

110 

.90 

2.73 

4.55 

6.38 

8.20 

12.76 

17.28 

120 

0 

1.84 

3.67 

5.52 

7.36 

11.95 

16.49 

130 


.92 

2.77 

4.64 

6.99 

11.14 

15.24 

140 


0 

1.87 

3.75 

5.62 

10.31 

14.99 

150 



.94 

2.83 

4.72 

9.46 

14.18 

160 



0 

1.91 

3.82 

8.59 

13.37 

170 




.96 

2.89 

7.71 

12.54 

180 




0 

1.96 

6.81 

11.70 

200 





0 

4.85 

9.93 


Temperature given in Fahrenheit. 


The following table gives the number of British thermal units in a pound of water at 
different temperatures. They are reckoned above 32° F., for, strictly speaking, water does 
not exist below 32°, and ice follows another law. 

WATER BETWEEN 32° AND 212° F. 


Temp. 

Fahr. 

Heat 
Units 
per lb. 

Weight, 
lb. per 
cub. ft. 

iTemp’r- 

ature. 

Fahr. 

Heat 
Units 
per lb. 

Weight, 
lb. per 
cub. ft. 

Temp r- 
ature 
Fahr. 

Heat 
Units 
per lb. 

Weight, 
lb. per 
cub. ft. 

Temp’r- 

ature 

Fahr. 

Heat 
Units 
per lb. 

Weight 
lb. per 
cub. ft. 

32° 

0.00 

62.42 

110° 

78.00 

61.89 

145° 

113.26 

61.28 

179° 

147.54 

60.57 

35 

3.02 

62.42 

112 

80.00 

61.86 

146 

114.27 

61.26 

180 

148.54 

60.55 

40 

8.06 

62.42 

113 

81.01 

61.84 

147 

115.28 

61.24 

181 

14955 

60 53 

45 

13.08 

62.42 

114 

82.02 

61.83 

148 

116.29 

61.22 

182 

150.56 

60 50 

50 

18.10 

62 41 

115 

83.02 

6182 

149 

117.30 

61.20 

183 

151.57 

60.48 

52 

20.11 

62.40 

116 

84.03 

61.80 

150 

118.30 

61.18 

184 

152.58 

60.46 

54 

22.11 

62.40 

117 

85.04 

61.78 

151 

119.31 

61.16 

185 

153.58 

60.44 

56 

24.11 

62.39 

118 

86.05 

61.77 

152 

120.32 

61.14 

186 

154.59 

60.41 

58 

26.12 

62.38 

119 

87.06 

61.75 

153 

121.33 

61.12 

187 

15560 

60 39 

60 

28.12 

62.37 

120 

88.06 

61.74 

154 

122.34 

61.10 

188 

156.61 

60.37 

62 

30.12 

62.36 

121 

89.07 

61.72 

155 

123.34 

61.08 

189 

157.62 

60 34 

64 

32.12 

62 35 

122 

90.08 

61.70 

156 

124.35 

61.06 

190 

158.62 

60.32 

66 

34.12 

62.34 

123 

91.09 

61.68 

157 

125.36 

61.04 

191 

159.63 

60.29 

68 

36.12 

62.33 

124 

92.10 

61.67 

158 

126.37 

61.02 

192 

160.63 

60.27 

70 

38.11 

62.31 

125 

93.10 

61.65 

159 

127.38 

61.00 

193 

161.64 

60.25 

72 

40.11 

6230 

126 

94.11 

61.63 

160 

128 38 

60.98 

194 

162.65 

60.22 

74 

42.11 

62.28 

127 

95.12 

61.61 

161 

129.39 

60.96 

195 

163.66 

60.20 

76 

44.11 

62.27 

128 

96.13 

61.60 

162 

130.40 

60.94 

196 

164.66 

60.17 

78 

46.10 

62.25 

129 

97 14 

61.58 

163 

131.41 

60.92 

197 

165.67 

60.15 

80 

48.09 

62.23 

130 

98.14 

61.56 

164 

132.42 

60.90 

198 

166.68 

60 12 

82 

50 08 

62.21 

131 

9915 

61.54 

165 

133.42 

60.87 

199 

167.69 

60.10 

84 

52.07 

62 19 

132 

100.16 

61.52 

166 

134 43 

60.85 

200 

168.70 

60.07 

86 

54.06 

6217 

133 

101.17 

61.51 

167 

135.44 

60.83 

201 

169.70 

60 05 

88 

56.05 

62.15 

134 

102.18 

61.49 

168 

136.45 

60 81 

202 

170.71 

60.02 

90 

58.04 

62.13 

135 

103.18 

61.47 

169 

137.46 

60.79 

203 

171.72 

60 00 

92 

60.03 

62.11 

136 

104.19 

61.45 

170 

138.46 

60.77 

204 

172.73 

59 97 

94 

62.02 

62.09 

137 

105.20 

61.43 

171 

139.47 

60.75 

205 

173.74 

59.95 

96 

64.01 

6207 

138 

106 21 

61.41 

172 

140.48 

60.73 

206 

174.74 

59 92 

98 

66.01 

62.05 

139 

107.22 

-61.39 

173 

141.49 

60.70 

207 

175.75 

59.89 

100 

68.01 

62.02 

140 

108.22 

61.37 

174 

142.50 

60.68 

208 

176.76 

59.87 

102 

70.00 

62.00 

141 

109.23 

61.36 

175 

143.50 

60.66 

209 

177.77 

59.84 

104 

72.00 

61.97 

142 

110.24 

61.34 

176 

144.51 

60.64 

210 

178 78 

59 82 

106 

74.00 

61.95 

143 

111.25 

61.32 

177 

145 52 

60 62 

211 

179.78 

59.79 

108 

76.00 

61.92 

144 

112.26 

61.30 1 

178 

146.53 

60.59 1 

212 

180.79 

59.76 


Heat Units, B. H. U. or F. P. System. 


TO 





















































































SIZES OF CHIMNEYS WITH APPROPRIATE HORSE-POWER BOILERS. 

FROM STEAM. 






HEIGHT OF CHIMNEYS. 






v is 

Jin. ii 
aches 

50 ft. 

60 ft. 

70 ft. 

80 ft. 

! 90ft - 

100 ft. 

110 ft. 

125 ft. 

150 ft. 

175 ft. 

200 ft. 

12 -T o 

55 O <S 

55 U « 
*=*=. 

Aetna 

area. 

juare f 

= Lit 

55 - - 

“»lg 






Commercial Horse Power. 




* » 


18 

23 

25 

27 









0.97 

1.77 

16 

21 

35 

38 

11 









1.47 

’ 2.41 

19 

24 

49 

54 

58 

62 








2 08 

3.14 

22 

27 

65 

72 

78 

83 








2.78 

3 98 

24 

30 

84 

92 

100 

107 

113 







3.58 

4.91 

27 

33 


115 

125 

133 

141 







4.47 

5.94 

30 

36 


141 

152 

163 

173 

182 






547 

7.07 

32 

39 



183 

196 

208 

219 






6 57 

8.30 

35 

42 



216 

231 

245 

258 

271 





7.70 

9.62 

38 

48 




311 

330 

348 

365 

389 




10.44 

12 57 

43 

54 




363 

427 

449 

472 

503 

551 



13.51 

15.90 

48 

60 




505 

539 

565 

593 

632 

692 

748 


16.98 

19.64 

54 

66 





658 

694 

728 

776 

849 

918 

981 

20.83 

23.76 

59 

72 





792 

835 

876 

934 

1023 

1105 

1181 

25.08 

28.27 

64 

78 






995 

1038 

1107 

1212 

1310 

1400 

29.73 

33.18 

70 

84 






1163 

1214 

1294 

1418 

1531 

1637 

34.76 

38.48 

75 

90 






1344 

1415 

1496 

1639 

1770 

1893 

40.19 

44.18 

80 

96 






1537 

1616 

1720 

1876 

2027 

2167 

46.01 

50.27 

86 


PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. 


Ice is liquified and becomes water 
at 32° F. Above this point water 
increases in temperature up to the 
steaming point, nearly at the rate of 
1° for each unit of heat added per 
pound of water. The steaming point 
(212° at atmospheric pressure,) rises 
as the superimposed pressure increases 
but at a decreasing ratio ; as, for ex¬ 
ample, at atmospheric pressure it 
takes 3|° to add a pound, while at 150 
lbs. gives the same increase of 
pressure. 

For each unit of heat added above 
the steaming point, a portion of the 
water is converted into steam, hav¬ 
ing the same temperature and the 
same pressure a,s that at which it is evaporated. The heat so absorbed is called “Latent Heat.” The amount 
of heat rendered latent by each pound of water in becoming steam varies at different pressures, decreasing as 
the pressure increases. This latent heat added to the sensible heat (or the thermometric temperature), con¬ 
stitutes the “Total Heat.” The “total heat” being greater as the pressure increases, it will take more heat, and 
consequently more fuel, to make a pound of steam the higher the pressure. 

Saturated steam cannot be cooled except by lowering its pressure, the abstraction of heat being compen¬ 
sated by the latent heat of a portion which is condensed. Neither can steam, in contact with water, be 
heated above the temperature normal to its pressure. 

The density of saturated steam varies from § that of air of same temperature and pressure, below that of 
the atmosphere, to § at 100 lbs. Its weight per cubic foot varies as the 17 root of the 16th power, and may 
be found by the formula: D=.003027 p -941 , which is correct to within | per cent, up to 250 lbs. pressure. 

The following table gives the properties of steam at different pressures—from 1 lb. to 500. 


11 







































essi 

pou 

r sq 

ll)OV 

icuu 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

fi 

7 

8 

9 

10 

15 

20 

2d 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

05 

70 

75 

80 

85 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

120 

125 

130 

140 

150 

160 

170 

180 

190 

200 

225 

250 

275 

300 

325 

350 

375 

400 

500 


TABLEOF PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM. 

PARTLY PROM C. H. PEABODY S TABLES. 


The gauge pressure is about 15 pounds 


Heat 
in liquid 
from 32° 
in units. 

Heat of 
vaporiza¬ 
tion, or la¬ 
tent heat 
in h’t units 

Density or 
weight 
of cubic ft. 
in pounds. 

Volume of 
one pound 
in cubic 
feet. 

Factor of 
equivalent 
evaporat'n 
at 212 D 

Total 

pressure 

above 

vacuum. 

70.0 

1043.0 

0.00299 

334.5 

.9661 

i 

94.4 

1026.1 

0.00576 

173.6 

.9738 

2 

109.8 

1015.3 

0.00844 

118.5 

.9786 

3 

121.4 

1007.2 

0.01107 

90.33 

.9822 

4 

139.7 

1000.8 

0.01366 

73.21 

.9852 

5 

138.6 

995.2 

0.01622 

61.65 

.9876 

6 

145.4 

990.5 

0.01874 

53.39 

.9897 

7 

151.5 

988.2 

0.02125 

47.06 

.9916 

8 

156.9 

982.5 

0.02374 

42.12 

.9934 

9 

161.9 

979.0 

0.02621 

38.15 

.9949 

10 

181.8 

965.1 

0.03826 

26.14 

1.0003 

15 

196.9 

954.6 

0.05023 

19.91 

1.0051 

20 

209.1 

946.0 

0.06199 

16.13 

1.0099 

25 

219.4 

938.9 

0.07360 

13.59 

1.0129 

30 

228.4 

982.6 

0.98508 

11.75 

1.0157 

35 

236.4 

927.0 

0.09644 

10.37 

1.0182 

40 

243.6 

922.0 

0.1077 

9.285 

1.0205 

45 

250.2 

. 917.4 

0.1188 

8.418 

1.0225 

50 

256.3 

913.1 

0.1299 

7.698 

1.0245 

55 

261.9 

909.3 

0.1409 

7.097 

1.0263 

60 

267.2 

905.5 

0.1519 

6.583 

1.0280 

65 

272.2 

902.1 

0.1628 

6.143 

1.0295 

70 

276.9 

898.8 

0.1736 

5.760 

1.0309 

75 

281.4 

895.6 

0.1S43 

5.426 

1.0323 

80 

285.8 

892.5 

0.1951 

5.126 

1.0337 

85 

290.0 

889.6 

0.2058 

4.859 

1.0350 

90 

294.0 

886.7 

0.2165 

4.619 

1.0362 

95 

297.9 

884.0 

0.2271 

4.403 

1.0374 

100 

301.6 

881.3 

0.2378 

4.205 

1.0385 

105 

305.2 

878.8 

0.2484 

4.026 

1.0396 

110 

308.7 

876.3 

0.2589 

3.862 

1.0406 

115 

312.0 

874.0 

0.2695 

3.711 

1.0416 

120 

315.2 

871.7 

0.2800 

3.571 

1.0426 

125 

318.4 

869.4 

0.2904 

3.444 

1.0435 

130 

324.4 

865.1 

0.3113 

3.212 

1.0453 

140 

330.0 

861.2 

0.3321 

3.011 

1.0470 

150 

335.4 

857.4 

0 3530 

2.833 

1.0486 

160 

340.5 

853.8 

0.3737 

2.676 

1.0502 

170 

845.4 

850.3 

0.3945 

2.535 

1.0517 

180 

350.1 

847.0 

0.4153 

2.408 

1.0531 

190 

354.6 

843.8 

0.4359 

2.294 

1.0545 

200 

365.1 

836.3 

0.4876 

2.051 

1.0576 

225 

374.7 

829.5 

0.5393 

1.854 

1.0605 

250 

383.6 

823.2 

0.5913 

1.691 

1.0632 

275 

391.9 

817.4 

0.644 

1.553 

1.0657 

300 

399.6 

811.9 

0.696 

1.437 

1.0680 

325 

406.9 

806.8 

0.748 

1.337 

1.0703 

350 

414.2 

801.5 

0.800 

1.250 

1.0724 

375 

421.4 

796.3 

0.853 

1.172 

1.0745 

400 

444.3 

779.9 

1.065 

.939 

1.0812 

500 


The unit of heat used here is the B. H. U. or F. P. 


(14.7) less than the total pressure, so that 
in using this table, 15 must be added to the 
pressure as given by the steam gauge. The 
column of temperatures gives the ther- 
mometrie temperature of steam and the 
boiling point at each pressure. The “factor 
of equivalent evaporation” shows the pro¬ 
portionate cost in heat or fuel of producing 
steam at the given pressure as compared 
with atmospheric pressure. 

To ascertain the equivalent evaporation 
at any pressure, multiply the given evapo¬ 
ration by the factor of its pressure, and 
divide the product by the factor of the 
desired pressure. 

Each degree of difference in temperature 
of feed-water makes a difference of .00104 
in the amount of evaporation. Hence, to 
ascertain the equivalent evaporation from 
any other temperature of feed than 212°, 
add to the factor given as many times 
.00104 as the temperature of feed-water is 
degrees below 212°. For other pressures 
than those given in the table, it will be prac¬ 
tically correct to take the proportion of the 
difference between the nearest pressures 
given in the table. 


12 
































LIGHT UNITS. 


The English Unit is a normal sperm candle which burns 120 grains sperm per hour. Comparative measure¬ 
ments are made with a Sugg London No. 1 Argand burner, burning 5 cubic feet of gas per hour. 

The French Unit is the Careel lamp, burning 42 grams of pure rape seed oil per hour. The comparative measure¬ 
ments are made with a Bengal Argand burner, burning 105 liters gas per hour. 

The German Unit is a candle made of the purest possible paraffine. Its solidifying point must not be under 55 
degrees Centigrade. It must have a diameter of 20 m. m. and be of such length that ten candles will weigh 500 grams. 
The wick is made of 24 strands of cotton, which when dry weigh 0.668 grams. 

The Hefner Unit (Amylaeetate lamp) is the light produced by the burning of amylaeetate in a still clear atmos¬ 
phere. The wick used is round and solid, passing through a german-silver tube having an internal diameter of 8 m. 
m., an outer diameter of 8.3 m. m. and 25 m. m. in height. The height of flame must be 40 m. m. above the end of 
the tube, and must burn quietly at that height for ten minutes before measurements are made. 

The Munich Unit is a stearine candle, 4 or 6 to the pound, and burning 10.2 grams to 10.6 grams of stearine per 
hour. 

The table below gives a comparison of these different units one with the other. 



Comparison 

of Normal Light Units. 


1 Heffner Light, 

40 ra. m. 

i height of flame. 

German Asso. 
paraffine 
candle, height of 
flame 50 m. m. 

Munich 

stearine candle, 
height of 
flame 52 m. m. 

English sperm 
candle (American 
unit) height of 
flame 45 m. m. 

Parisian Careel 
lamp. 

1.000 

0.808 

0.725 

0.870 

0.083 

1.200 

1.000 

0.887 

1.065 

0.102 

1.380 

1.128 

1.000 

1.200 

0.115 

1.140 

0.939 

0.833 

1.000 

0.096 

12.048 

9.804 

8.696 

10.441 

1.000 


Effect 

of Carbon Dioxid 

on Candle Power of 



Illuminating Gas. 

2 

of Carbon Dioxid causes 9f 0 loss in candle power. 

5 “ 

a 

<< u 

20 “ “ l< “ 

10 “ 

u 

it it 

40 “ “ « a 

20 “ 

a 

it it 

75 u a it a 

30 “ 

(< 

it t< 

90 “ “ “ “ 

58 “ 

a 

« H 

100 “ “ “ “ 


c 


13 
































Table 

of the Areas 

of Circles and of the Sides of Squares 

of the Same 

Area. 


Diam. of 
Circle 
in inches. 

Area of 

Circle in 
sq. inches. 

Sides of Sq. of 
same area 
in sq. inches. 

Diam. of 
Circle 
in inches. 

Area of 

Circle in 
sq. inches. 

Sides of Sq. of 
same area 
in sq. inches. 

Diam. of 
Circle 
in inches. 

Area of 

Circle in 
sq. inches. 

Sides of Sq. of 
same area 
in sq. inches. 

1. 

.785 

.89 

21. 

346.36 

18.61 

41. 

1320.26 

36.34 

■ X 

1.767 

1.33 


363.05 

19.05 

■X 

1352.66 

36.78 

2. 

3.142 

1.77 

22. 

380.13 

19.50 

42. 

1385.45 

37.22 

■ X 

4.909 

2.22 

■ X 

397.61 

19.94 

M 

1418.63 

37.66 

3. 

7.069 

2.66 

23. 

415.48 

20.38 

43. 

1452.20 

38.11 

■ X 

9.621 

3.10 


433.74 

20.83 


1486.17 

38.55 

4. 

12.566 

3.54 

24. 

452.39 

21.27 

44. 

1520.53 

38.99 


15.904 

3.99 


471.44 

21.71 


1555.29 

39.44 

5. 

19.635 

4.43 

25. 

490.88 

22.16 

45. 

1590.43 

39.88 

■ X 

23.758 

4.87 

■ X 

510.71 

22.60 

■ X 

1625.97 

40.32 

6. 

28.274 

5.32 

26. 

530.93 

23.04 

46. 

1661.91 

40.77 

■ X 

33.183 

5.76 

• 34 

551.55 

23.49 

■ X 

1698.23 

41.21 

7. 

38.485 

6.20 

27. 

572.56 

23.93 

47. 

1734.95 

41.65 


44.179 

6.65 


593.96 

24.37 

• A 

1772.06 

42.10 

8. 

50.266 

7.09 

28. 

615.75 

24.81 

48. 

1809.56 

42.58 


56.745 

7.53 


637.94 

25.26 


1847.46 

42.98 

9. 

63.617 

7.98 

29. 

660.52 

25.70 

49. 

1885.75 

43.43 

■ X 

■> 70.882 

8.42 

■ 'A 

683.49 

26.14 


1924.43 

43.87 

10 

78.540 

8.86 

30. 

706.86 

26.59 

50. 

1963.50 

44.31 

•34 

86.590 

9.30 

■ X 

730.62 

27.03 

■ X 

2002.97 

44.75 

li. 

95.03 

9.75 

31. 

754.77 

27.47 

51. 

2042.83 

45.20 

•34 

103.87 

10.19 

• 34 

779.31 

27.92 

■ X 

2083.08 

45.64 

12. 

113.10 

10.63 

32. 

804.25 

28.36 

52. 

2123.72 

46.08 

■ X 

122.72 

11.08 

• 34 

829.58 

28.80 

■ X 

2164.76 

46.53 

13. 

132.73 

11.52 

33. 

855.30 

29.25 

53. 

2206.19 

46.97 

•34 

143.14 

11.96 


881.41 

29.69 

■ X 

2248.01 

47.41 

14. 

153.94 

12.41 

34. 

907.92 

30.13 

54. 

2290.23 

47.86 

• 34 

165.13 

12.85 

• 34 

934.82 

30.57 

■ X 

2332.83 

48.30 

15. 

176.72 

13.29 

35. 

962.11 

31.02 

55. 

2375.83 

48.74 

•34 

188.69 

13.74 

• 34 

989.80 

31.46 


2419.23 

49.19 

16. 

201.06 

14.18 

38. 

1017.88 

31.90 

56. 

2463.01 

49.63 

•34 

213.83 

14.62 

•34 

1046.35 

32.35 

■34 

2507.19 

50.07 

17. 

226.98 

15.07 

37. 

1075.21 

32.79- 

57. 

2551.76 

50.51 

• 34 

240.53 

15.51 

•34 

1104.47 

33.23 

■ X 

2596.73 

50.96 

18. 

254.47 

15.95 

38. 

1134.12 

33.68 

58. 

2642.09 

51.40 

• 34 

268.80 

16.40 

•34 

1164.16 

34.12 

• 34 

2687.84 

51.84 

19. 

283.53 

16.84 

39. 

1194.59 

31.56 

59. 

2733.98 

52.29 

• 34 

298.65 

17.28 

• 34 

1225.42 

35.01 

■ X 

2780.51 

52.73 

20. 

314.16 

17.72 

40. 

1256.64 

35.45 

60. 

2827.74 

53.17 

• 34 

330.06 

18.17 

•3-4 

1288.25 

35.89 

• 34 

2874.76 

53.62 


14 














































Formula for Converting Different Aerometric Degrees into Specific Gravity. 

//=number of Aerometric Degrees. «?=Specific Gravity. 


KINDS OF AEROMETERS. 


Temp. 

Centigrade. 


Liquids heavier 
than water. 


Liquids lighter 
than water. 


1. GAY-LUSSAC. 

Divided into 100 degrees water=100. 

Each degree is 1-100 of this volume. 
Aerometer must sink to the 100 in water. 

2. Balling. 

Gay-Lussac’s principle, two degrees 

Balling=one degree Gay-Lussac. 

3. Brix . 

Gay-Lussac’s principle, four degrees 

Brix=one degree Gay-Lussac. 

4. Baume. 
a — Old construction , Liquids h’v’r than 

water: water=0.—A 10% Na Cl solution 
15° ) 

d -=1 073350 J- =10. Liquids lighter 

15° j 

than water: 10% Na Cl solution=0. 
water=10. 

b — New construction (so-called rational 
scale). Liquids heavier than water: 

15° 

water=0. Sulphuric acid of d -1.842 

15° 

= 66 °. 

5. Holland Aerometer. 12.5° j 

Old construction of Baume, d— - 

12.5° 

the 10% Na Cl solution=1.074626. 

6. Beck. 

Water equals 0. A liquid of 0.850 
12.5° | 

d— - >-=30. Division continued, 

12.5° J made above and below. 

7. Twaddle. 

Water=0. Every degree corresponds 
to an increase in specific gravity of 0.005. 


Given on 
instrument. 

d— 

100 

d— 

100 


100 —n 


100+// 

No degrees 

d — 

200 

d— 

200 

given. 


200 —n 


200+// 

No degrees 

d- 

400 

d— 

400 

given. 


400—// 


400+// 

12.5° 

d- r- 

145 88 

d — 

145.88 


145.88 —n 


135.88+// 

15.° 

d— 

146.3 

d — 

146.3 


146.3 —n 


136.3+// 

17.5° 

d— 

146.78 

d — 

146.78 


146.78—// 


136.78+// 

15.° 

d — 

144.3 



144.3 —n 



12.5° 

d— 

144 

d~- 

144 


144 —n 


134+// 

12.5° 

d— 

170 

d — 

170 


170 —n 


170+// 

Given on 
instrument. 

d— 

1.000+0.005// 




15 


Value of a Given Quantity of Gas at Different 
Pressures. 


Cubic Feet. 

Pressure. 

Per Cent. 

100 

4 OZ. 

100. + 

100 

8 “ 

104. 

100 

16 “ 

106. 

100 

l H lbs. 

109.1 

100 

2 “ 

111.8 

100 

5 “ 

125. 

100 

10 “ 

140. 

100 

15 “ 

200. 


Table Showing Registration of Gas by Meter, 
Under Different Pressures. 


Pressure 

in oz. 

Relative 

Density. 

Cubic Feet Gas. 

Passed. Registered. 

i 

0.987 

500 

507 

1‘4 

.989 

612 

621 

2 

.991 

707 

713 

3 

.996 

866 

869 

4 

1.000 

1,000 

1,000 

5 

1.004 

1,118 

1,113 

6 

1.009 

1,225 

1,214 

7 

1.013 

1,323 

1,306 

8 

1.017 

1,414 

1,390 

9 

1.022 

1,500 

1,468 

10 

1.026 

1,581 

1,541 

11 

1.030 

1.658 

1,610 

12 

1.034 

1,732 

1,675 


The Equivalents of Ounces Pressure in Water 


and Mercury. 


Oz. 

In. of 

Water. 

In. of 

Mercury. 

Oz. 

In. of 

Water. 

In. of 

Mercury. 

i 

1.7 

.125 

9 

15.5 

1.125 

2 

3.4 

.250 

10 

17.2 

1.250 

3 

5.2 

.375 

11 

19.0 

1.375 

4 

6.9 

.500 

12 

20.8 

1.500 

5 

8.6 

.625 

13 

22.5 

1.625 

6 

10.3 

.750 

14 

24.2 

1.750 

7 

12.0 

.875 

15 

26.0 

1.875 

8 

13.8 

1.000 

16 

27.7 

2.000 














































































. ® . 
s.S§ 
3 a-5 

S-g.a 


Table for Equalizing the Diameter of Pipes. 


The large figures at the top of each column give the diameters in inches of the branch pipes. 

The figures at the intersection of the horizontal line with the vertical, give the number of pipes, of the 


Velocity and qaantity of gas delivered 
in pipes of different diameters, and 
100 feet long, with the same loss of 
pressure per square inch. 


Diameter 
of pipe 


Velocity of Cubic feet 
gas, in feet of gas 


3 

16 

2.7 

3 

opposite in the first column 















1 

886 

4.7 






















2 

1224 

27 

4 

32 

5.7 

2. 

4 


















3 

1500 

74 























4 

1732 

151 

5 

56 

9.8 

3.6 

1.8 

5 

















5 

1936 

264 






















6 

2121 

416 

6 

83 

16 

5.7 

2.8 

1.6 

6 
















7 

2291 

612 





















8 

2149 

855 

7 

129 

23 

8.3 

4.1 

2.3 

1.5 

7 















9 

2598 

1148 





















10 

2738 

1493 

8 

180 

32 

12 

5.7 

3.2 

2.1 

1.4 

8 














11 

2872 

1895 



















12 

3000 

2356 

9 

211 

42 

16 

7.6 

4.3 

2.8 

1.9 

1.3 

9 













13 

3123 

2879 






















14 

3240 

3464 

10 

317 

56 

20 

9.9 

5.7 

3.6 

2.4 

1.7 

1.3 

10 












15 

3354 

4115 






















16 

3464 

4837 

11 

402 

71 

26 

12 

7.0 

4.5 

3.1 

2.2 

1.7 

1.3 

11 











17 

3570 

5626 






















18 

3674 

6494 

12 

501 

88 

32 

16 

9.0 

5.7 

3.8 

2.8 

2.0 

1.6 

1.2 

12 










19 

3775 

7434 






















20 

3872 

8448 

13 

613 

107 

39 

19 

11 

6.9 

4.7 

3.4 

2.5 

1.9 

1.5 

1.2 

13 









22 

4061 

10719 





















24 

4242 

13327 

14 

737 

129 

47 

23 

13 

8.3 

5.7 

4.1 

3.0 

2.3 

1.8 

1.5 

1.2 

14 








26 

4415 

16278 






















28 

4582 

19593 

15 

876 

152 

56 

27 

16 

9.9 

6.7 

4.8 

3.6 

2.8 

2.2 

1.8 

1.4 

1.2 

15 







30 

4743 

23284 






















36 

5196 

36745 

16 

1026 

180 

65 

32 

18 

11 

7.9 

5.7 

4.2 

3.2 

2.6 

2.1 

1.7 

1.4 

1.2 

16 






42 

5612 

54032 






















48 

6000 

75386 

17 

1197 

208 

76 

37 

21 

13 

9.2 

6.6 

4.9 

3.8 

2.9 

2.4 

2.0 

1.6 

1.4 

1.2 

17 





54 

6363 

101228 

1375 

239 


43 

24 

16 

10 




3.4 



1.9 

1.6 






60 

6710 

131759 

18 

88 

7.7 

5.7 

4.3 

2.8 

2.3 

1.3 

1.2 

18 




The various quantities of gas here 

19 

1580 

275 

100 

49 

28 

18 

12 

8.8 

6.5 

5 

3.9 

3.2 

2.6 

2.2 

1.8 

1.5 

1.3 

1.2 

19 



given is at the rate of 4352 
be carried a distance of 

cubic ft., to 
100 feet per 

20 

1797 

313 

114 

56 

32 

20 

14 

9.9 

7.4 

5.7 

4.5 

3.6 

2.9 

2.5 

2.1 

1.7 

1.5 

1.3 

1.1 

20 


minute, with a loss of 1 horse power, 
or 1,000 feet with ten horse power. 

22 

2284 

398 

145 

71 

41 

26 

18 

13 

9.3 

7.2 

5.7 

4.5 

3.7 

3.1 

2.6 

2.2 

1.9 

1.7 

1.4 

1.3 

22 




24 

2834 

493 

180 

88 

50 

32 

22 

16 

12 

8.9 

7.6 

5.7 

4.6 

3.8 

3.2 

2.9 

2.4 

2.1 

1.8 

1.6 

1.2 

24 



26 

3474 

605 

219 

108 

62 

39 

27 

19 

14 

11 

8.6 

6.9 

5.7 

4.7 

4.0 

3.4 

2.9 

2.5 

2.2 

1.9 

1.5 

1.2 26 



28 

4165 

725 

265 

129 

74 

48 

32 

23 

17 

13 

10 

8.3 

6.8 

5.7 

4.8 

4.1 

3.5 

3.0 

2.6 

2.3 

1.8 

1.5 1.2 28 


30 

4983 

864 

315 

154 

88 

56 

38 

28 

20 

16 

12 

9.9 

8.0 

6.7 

5.7 

4.7 

4.1 

3.6 

3.0 

2.6 

2.2 

1.7 1.4 1 

2 30 


36 

7818 

1361 

497 

243 

139 

88 

60 

43 

32 

25 

19 

16 

13 

u 

8.9 

7.6 

6.5 

5.7 

5.0 

4.3 

3.4 

2.7 2.2 1.9 1.6 36 


42 

11488 

2000 

730 

368 

205 

129 

88 

63 

47 

36 

29 

23 

19 

16 

13 

u 

9.6 

8.5 

7.3 

6.4 

5.0 

4.1 3.3 2 

8 2.3 1.5 42 

48 

15989 

2792 

1081 

492 

282 

180 

123 

88 

66 

50 

39 

32 

26 

22 

18 

16 

13 

12 

10 

8.9 

7.0 

5.7 4.7 3.8 3.2 2.1 1 

.4 48 

54 

21560 

3753 

1368 

671 

384 

244 

166 

119 

88 

68 

53 

43 

35 

29 

24 

21 

18 

16 

15 

12 

9.4 

7.6 6-2 5 

2 4.3 2.8 1 

9 1.3 54 

60 

27913 

4879 

1781 

872 

499 

314 

215 

154 

115 

88 

69 

56 

46 

38 

32 

27 

23 

20 

18 

16 

12 

9.9 8.1 6. 

7 5.7 3.6 2.4 1.8 1.3 


16 


















WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

The following tables, especially those comparing the 
Metric System with the English System of weights and 
measures, and vice-versa, are arranged with the object of 
facilitating the making of a quick comparison of any 
factor of either system with its equivalent in the other. 
It is unfortunate that not a single factor of the whole 
Metric System is a divisor of any part of the English Sys¬ 
tem of weights and measures. This fact alone is per¬ 
haps the greatest stumbling-block to the general adoption 
of the Metric System in this country. If it were possible, 
in any way, to make a quick and accurate comparison 
between any given factors of these two systems, the 
mueh-to-be-desired general adoption of the Metric System 
would be very much facilitated, for it is unquestionably 
the simpler of the two. A general adoption of the Metric 
Ton for the selling of coal would be a long step in the 
direction of the adoption of the Metric System. The 
metric ton eqals 2,204.621 pounds. This is very close to 
i our long ton, and, as there are so many different ways of 
selling coal throughout the West, it might be feasible to 
unite upon the Metric Ton as a basis for sales and pur¬ 
chases. 


Equivalents or Metric Measurements. 

Meter.39.37027 inches. Cubic meter.1.307 cubic yards. 

Centimeter. 0.3937 “ Liter.0 0353 cubic feet. 

Square meter. .10.764 sq. feet. 

Reduction of Metric Weights to Avoirdupois. 


One pound Avoirdupois=16 ounces=7000 grains. 


• 

Grains. 

Ounces. 

Pounds. 

Milligram. 

Centigram. 

Decigram. 

Gram. 

Decagram. 

Hectagram. 

Kilogram. 

Mvriagram. 

Quintal . 

Millier. Metric ton or M. K. G.. 

0.01543234 

0 1543234 
1.543234 
15.43234874 

0.0349539 

0.349539 

3.49539 

34.9539 

0 02204621 
0.2204621 
2.204621 
22.04621 
220.4621 
2204.621 


Reduction of Metric Cubical Measure to English Cubical Measure. 



Cubic inches. 

Cubic feet. 

Cubic Centimeter. 

0.0610254 


Centiliter. 

0.610254 


Deciliter. 

6 10254 


Liter . 

61.0254 


Decaliter. 

610.254 

0.353156 

Hectoliter. 


3 53156 

Cubic Meter. 


35.3156 

Mvriameter. 


353.156 


Reduction of Eng. Weights and Measures to their Metric Equivalents. 


An Inch.. = 2.54 Centimeters. 

A foot_= 0.3048 Meter. 

A Yard...= 0.9144 Meter 

A Rod_= 5.029 Meters. 

A Mile... .= 1.6093 Kilometers. 
ASq Inch= 6.452 Sq Cen’m’rs. 
A Sq. Foot= 0.0929 Sq. Meter. 

A Sq. Yd..= 0.8361 Sq. Meter. 

A Sq. Rod.= 25.29 Sq Meters. 
An Acre.= 0.4047 Hectare. 

A Sq. Mile=259. Hectares. 

A Cu. Inch= 16.69 Cn. C’nt'ms. 
A Cu.Foot= 0.02832 Cu. Meter. 


AcubicY^ard_= 0.7646 cu.Meter. 

A Cord .= 3.624 Steres. 

A Gallon.= 3.786 Liters. 

A Dry Quart....= 1.101 Liters 

A Peck.= 8.811 Liters. 

A Bushel.=35.24 Liters. 

An oz. Avoirdnp’s=28.35 Grams. 

A lb. Avoirdupoi8= 0.4536 Kilogr’m. 

A Ton.= 0.9072 Tonneau. 

A Grain Troy_= 0.0648 Gram. 

An Ounce Troy. .=31.104 Grams. 

A lb. Troy.= 0.3732 Kilogram. 


The following tables, for quick comparisons, in the numerous calcula¬ 
tions which enter into the daily life of the average gas-manager, will be 
found very useful: 


TABLE OF APPROXIMATE NUMBERS, FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES. 


Diameter of a circle . 


3.1116 

—the circumference. 

Circumference of a circle. 

.. X 

.31831 

—the diameter. 

Diameter of a circle.. • 


.8862 

=rthe side of an equal square. 

Side of a square. 

.. X 

1.128 

=the diam. of an equal circle. 

Square of diameter. . 


.785+ 

=the area of a circle. 

Square root of area . 


1.12837 

—the diameter of equal circle. 

Square of the diameter of a sphere. .*... 

.. X 

3 1118 

=convex surface. 

Cube of ditto .. 


.5236 

—solidity. 

Diameter of a sphere.. 

■ ■ X 

.806 

=dimensions of equal cube. 

Diameter of a sphere. 

X 

.6667 

^length of equal cylinder. 

Square inches. 

. X 

.00695 

=square feet. 

Cubic inches. 


.00058 

=-cubic feet. 

Cubic feet. . 

. X 

.03704 

= cubic yards. 

Cylindrical inches. 

X 

.00045+6 

—cubic feet. 

Cylindrical feet. 


.02909 

=cubic yard. 

183 316 circular inches. 



1 square foot. 

2200 cylindrical inches. 



—1 cubic foot. 

Avoirdupois pounds. -. 


.009 

=cwts. 

Avoirdupois pounds. 

.. X 

.00045 

=tons. 

Lineal feet. 

.. X 

.00019 

=_statute miles 

Lineal yards.. 


.000568 

^statute miles. 


17 













































































WEIGHT OF WATER. 


1 Cubic inch. 

12 Cubic inches. 

1 Cubic foot (salt). 64 

1 Cubic foot (fresh) at 60° F - . 

1 Cubic foot.. 

1.8 Cubic feet. 

35.84 Cubic feet.2240 

1 Cylindrical inch. 

12 Cylindrical inches. 

1 Cylindrical foot. 49. 

1 Cylindrical foot. 6 

2.282 Cylindrical feet. 112 

45.64 Cylindrical feet.2240 

1 Imperial gallon. 10 

11.2 Imperial gallons. 112 

224 Imperial gallons.2240 

1 U. S. gallon. 8 

13.43 U- S. gallons. 112 

268.7 U. S. gallons.2240 


the depth from the surface. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of 
water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. Every foot 
elevation is called (approximately) equal to one-half pound pressure 
per square inch. 


.03617 

pound. 

.434 

pound. 

, 64.27 

pounds. 

62.367 

pounds. 

7.48 

U. S. gallons. 

112.0 

pounds. 

2240 

pounds. 

.02842 

pound. 

.341 

pound. 

49.10 

pounds. 

6.0 

U. S. gallons. 

112.0 

pounds. 

2240 

pounds. 

10 

pounds. 

112.0 

pounds. 

2240 

pounds. 

8.336 

pounds. 

112.0 

pounds. 

2240 

pounds. 

if water is 

at two-thirds 


NUMBER OF U. S. GALLONS (231 CUBIC INCHES) IN ONE FOOT LENGTH 
OF PIPE OF DIFFERENT DIAMETEKS. 


Diameter 
in inches. 

Gallons. 


Diameter 
in inches. 

Gallons. 

Diameter 
in inches. 

Gallons. 

% 

.0230 


3 M 

.5000 

10 

4.081 

l 

.0408 


4 

.6528 

11 

4.937 

i X 

.0638 


4 H 

.8263 

12 

5.876 

i % 

.0918 


5 

1.020 

IS 

6.895 

iM 

.1250 


6 

1.469 

14 

7.997 

2 

.1632 


7 

1.999 

15 

9.180 


.2550 


8 

2.611 

16 

10.44 

3 

.3673 


9 

3.305 

18 

13.22 


WEIGHT OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 


Per Cubic Foot. 

Names of Substances.. Average Lbs. 

Brickwork, pressed brick. 140 

Brickwork, ordinary. 112 

Cement, hydraulic, American, Rosendale, ground, loose. 56 

Cement, hydraulic, American, Louisville, ground, loose. 50 

Cement, hydraulic, English, Portland, ground, loose. 90 

Masonry, of granite or limestone, well dressed. 165 

Masonry, of mortar rubble. 154 

Masonry, of dry rubble, well scabbled. 138 

Masonry, of sandstone, well dressed. 144 


Weight of atmosphere at sea level =14.73 lbs. per square inch. 
Equals the weight of a column of water 33.95 feet high. 

Equals the weight of a column of mercury 30 inches high. 


CRITICAL POINT OF SUBSTANCES. 

The critical point of a substance is that temperature at which no 
amount of pressure can liquify it from its gaseous state. Therefore at j 
any temperature above the critical point the substance is a permanent j 


gas. 


SUBSTANCE. 

Formula. 

Temperature, 

Centigrade. 

Pressure in 
Atmospheres. 

Acetylene. 

C 2 H 2 

37.05° 

68. 

Aethylene. 

C 2 H 4 

10.10 

51. 

Benzole. 

C 6 H 6 

291.50 

60.5 

Hexane. 

C 6 H 14 

250.30 

Isobutylene.'.. 

C 4 H* 

150.7 


Carbon Monoxid. 

CO 

141.1 

35.9 

Carbon T)ioxid. 

C O 2 

31.1 

73. 

Methane. 

C H 4 

-95.5 

50. 

Propylene. 

C 3 H 8 

90.2 

Ammonia. 

N H 3 

130. 

115. 

Carbon Risulphid. 

C S 2 

277 68 

78.14 

92. 

Hydrogen Snlphid. 

H 2 S 

100.2 



18 














































































The tables given below, on wrought-iron gas and water pipe, on the calculation of factors of safety and 
efficiency of riveted joints, etc., are used with permission of the National Tube Works Company. 


WROUGHT-IRON WELDED STEAM, GAS AND WATER PIPE. 
Table of Standard Dimensions. 


Diameter. 

; Thickness. 

Circumference. 

Transverse Areas. 

Length of Pipe 
per Sq. Foot of 

Length of 

Pipe 

containing 

One Cubic 

Foot. 

Nominal 

Weight 

per Foot. 

Number of 

Threads per 

Inch of Screw. 

Nomi¬ 
nal In- 
i ternal. 

Actual 

Ex¬ 

ternal. 

Actual 

In¬ 

ternal. 

Ex¬ 

ternal. 

in¬ 

ternal. 

Ex¬ 

ternal. 

In¬ 

ternal. 

Metal. 

Ext’rnl 

Sur¬ 

face. 

Int’rnl 

Sur¬ 

face. 

Ins. 

INS. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

Ins. 

SQ. Ins. 

' Sq. Ins. 

Sq. Ins. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

Ft. 

LB9. 


% 

.405 

.27 

.068 

1.272 

.848 

.129 

.0573 

.0717 

9.44 

14.15 

2513. 

.241 

27 

H 

.54 

.364 

.088 

1.696 

1.144 

.229 

.1041 

.1249 

7.075 

10.49 

1383.3 

.42 

18 

% 

.675 

.494 

.091 

2.121 

1.552 

.358 

.1917 

.1663 

5.657 

7.73 

751.2 

.559 

18 

X 

.84 

.623 

.109 

2.639 

1.957 

.554 

.3048 

.2492 

4.547 

6.13 

472.4 

.837 

14 

X 

1.05 

.824 

.113 

3.299 

2.589 

.866 

.5333 

.3327 

3.637 

4.635 

270. 

1.115 

14 

l 

1.315 

1.048 

.134 

4.131 

3.292 

1.358 

.8626 

.4954 

2.904 

3.645 

166.9 

1.668 

111 

iM 

1.66 

1.38 

.14 

5.215 

4.335 

2.164 

1.496 

.668 

2.301 

2.768 

96.25 

2.244 

1 H 

U4 

1.9 

1.611 

.145 

5.969 

5.061 

2-835 

2.038 

.797 

2.01 

2.371 

70.66 

2.678 

1 H 

2 

2.375 

2.067 

.154 

7.461 

6.494 

443 

3 356 

1.074 

1.608 

1.848 

42.91 

3.609 

1 H 

2K 

2875 

2.468 

.204 

9.032 

7.753 

6492 

4 784 

1.708 

1.328 

1.547 

30.1 

5739 

8 

3 

3.5 

3.067 

.217 

10.996 

9.636 

9.621 

7.388 

2.243 

1.091 

1.245 

19.5 

7.536 

8 

3 X 

4. 

3.548 

.226 

12.566 

11.146 

12.566 

9.887 

2.679 

.955 

1.077 

14.57 

9.001 

8 

4 

4.5 

4.026 

.237 

14.137 

12.648 

15904 

12.73 

3.174 

.849 

.949 

11.31 

10.665 

8 


5. 

4.508 

.246 

15.708 

14.162 

19.635 

15.961 

3.674 

.764 

.848 

9.02 

12.34 

8 

5 

5.563 

5.045 

.259 

17.477 

15.849 

24.306 

19.99 

4 316 

.687 

.757 

7.2 

14.502 

8 

6 

6.625 

6.065 

.28 

20 813 

19.054 

34.472 

28 888 

5.584 

.577 

.63 

4.98 

18.762 

8 

7 

7.625 

7.023 

.301 

23.955 

22 063 

45.664 

38.738 

6.926 

.501 

.544 

3.72 

23.271 

8 

8 

8.625 

7.982 

.322 

27.096 

25.076 

58.426 

50.04 

8.386 

.443 

.478 

2.88 

28.177 

8 

9 

9.625 

8.937 

.344 

30.238 

28.076 

72.76 

62.73 

10.03 

.397 

.427 

2.29 

33.701 

8 

10 

10.75 

10.019 

.366 

33.772 

31.477 

90.763 

78.839 

11.924 

.355 

.382 

1.82 

40.065 

8 

11 

12 . 

11.25 

.375 

37 699 

35.343 

113.098 

99.402 

13696 

.318 

.339 

1.456 

45.95 

8 

12 

12.75 

12 . 

. 375 

40.055 

37.7 

127.677 

113 098 

14.579 

.299 

.319 

1.27 

48.985 

8 

13 

14. 

13.25 

.375 

43.982 

41.626 

153.938 

137.887 

16051 

.273 

.288 

1.04 

53.921 

8 

14 

15. 

14.25 

.375 

47.124 

44.768 

176.715 

159.485 

17.23 

.255 

.268 

.903 

57.893 

8 

15 

16. 

15.25 

.375 

50.265 

47.909 

201.062 

182.665 

18.407 

.239 

.250 

.788 

61.77 

8 


18. 

17.25 

.375 

56.549 

54.192 

254.47 

233.706 

20.764 

212 

.221 

.616 

69.66 

, , 


20 . 

19.25 

.375 

62.832 

60.476 

314.16 

291.04 

23.12 

.191 

.198 

.495 

77.57 



22 . 

21.25 

.375 

69.115 

66.759 

380.134 

354.657 

25 477 

.174 

.179 

.406 

85.47 

. . 


24. 

23.25 

.375 

75.398 

73.042 

452.39 

424.558 

27.832 

.159 

.164 

.339 

93.37 

• * 


LINEAR EXPANSION OF 
STEAM PIPES. 

100 feet of brass pipe lengthens .0125 inches 
for 1° Fahr. 

100 feet of wrought-iron pipe lengthens 
.008 inches for 1° Fahr. 


O) 

si 6 

5 £ 

Linear increase for 
100 feet in length 
of Pipe. 

*2 . 
s ® - o3 
o ^.2 

<y 

-t-i O 53 

GO £ 0 

Wrought 

Iron. 

Brass. 

g bo 
t- EH p v 

0 bc~ G 

POUNDS. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Fahr. 

Boiling Water. 

1 -iV 

1% 

212 ° 

5 

m 

9 3 
-32 

228° 

10 

iiV 

2 M 

240° 

15 

ix 

2 % 

250° 

25 

in 

-A 

267° 

30 

i% 

911 
—T<> 

275° 

40 

m 

913 
—T 6 

287° 

50 

1 7 /a 

2 |t 

298° 

60 

1 3 1 

A 32 

3 5 % 

307° 

70 

2A 

SfV 

316° 

80 

2 X 

3A 

324° 

90 

2 A 

3% 

331° 

100 

9 7 
^3 2 

Q 1 5 
^32 

338° 

125 

9 9 
-32 

31% 

344° 

150 

2 * 

8H 

366° 

175 

2H 

3|z 

377° 


19 























































































TO FIND THE THICKNESS OF A CYLINDER TO RESIST SAFELY 
A GIVEN INTERNAL PRESSURE. 


Divide the ultimate cohesion of the material in lbs. per square inch by the 
factor of safety. The quotient is the safe cohesive strength of the metal. 
Divide the given pressure by this safe cohesion. Call the quotient to. To 
half of to add one. Multiply the sum by to. Multiply the product by the | 
radius of the pipe in inches. 

Example. —What should be thickness of a 14 inch diameter wrought iron 
pipe to withstand 250 lbs. internal pressure with a safety of 4 ; taking the 
ultimate cohesion of the iron at 50,000 lbs. per square inch ? 

£.0000 = 12500 lbs. per square inch safe cohesion, T |i{j 6 -02= to. Half 
of m = .01, to which add 1 = 1.01 X -02 = .0202 X = 7 = .14 thickness 
required. 

Rem. —Where it is known that the safe thickness will be less than one- 
thirtieth of the radius, it may be found by merely multiplying to by the radius. 
Thus: .02 x 7 = .14. 

For single riveted wrought iron the thickness should be at least 1.8 times 
that required for weld, the safe cohesion of the iron being reduced by .56 
to allow for weakening by the rivet holes 

As double riveted cylinders are about 1.25 times as strong as single riveted, 
they may be £ part thinner than the single riveted. 

For the thickness of iron required for single riveted pipes, tanks, &c., the rale gives 
.1016 X inner radius in inches, under the following conditions: 1000 feet j 
head of water, or 434 lbs. per square inch. Ultimate cohesion of plate being I 
taken at 48000 lbs. per square inch, or at 8000 lbs. for a safety of 6, which is 
further reduced X .56 = 4480 lbs. to allow for weakening of rivet holes. 

A 14 inch single riveted pipe, therefore, under these conditions would be 
made of thickness of iron = .1016 X 7 = .711 inches. 

EFFICIENCY OF RIVETED JOINTS. 

The following is a summary relating to the efficiency of riveted joints with 
iron plates varying from tV to £ inch in thickness. With thicker plates the | 
efficiency will probably be much less. Calling the total tensile strength of 
the original solid plate 100, the efficiencies of various joints are as follows, 


and that only, provided the pitch of the riveting is so arranged that the joint 
is on the point of giving way from the tearing of the plate or the shearing of 
the rivets indifferently. Otherwise, from 10 to 20 per cent, may be taken off 
the percentages of efficiency given in the table. It will also be recollected 
that the covers of single-covered butt joints should be thicker than the plates 
they connect. 

RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF IRON JOINTS OF VARIOUS KINDS. 


Efficiency 
per cent. 


Original solid plate. 

Lap joint, single-riveted, punched.... 

“ “ drilled. 

“ double-riveted. 

Butt joint, single cover, single-riveted 
“ “ double-riveted 

“ double cover, single-riveted. 

“ “ double-riveted 


100 % 
45 
50 
60 

45 to 50 
60 
55 
66 


MARGIN AND LAP OF PLATES—PITCH OF RIVETS—NOMINAL 
AND FINISHED SIZE OF RIVETS. 


Experiments indicate that the margin of single-riveted iron lap joints need 
not exceed one diameter of the rivet—that is, the lap of single-riveted lap 
joints need not exceed three times the nominal diameter of the rivet for plates. 

The rules obtained by Browne for double-riveted lap joints with punched 
holes are briefly as follows : 

Diameter t>f rivet_=2 times thickness of plate. 

Pitch.=4j diameters of rivet. 

T Qr> J 5j diameters in chain riveting. 

.\ 6 diameters in zigzag riveting. 

Wilson says that the width of the strap for double-riveted butt joints in 
boiler work should be at least nine times the diameter of the rivet, and may 
with thick plates be ten times. 




























SIZE AND PITCH OF IRON RIVETS. 

The diameter of iron rivets in boiler work is generally about twice the 
thickness of the plate when the latter does not exceed | inch; after this the 
proportion is gradually reduced until the diameter of the rivet equals nearly 
the thickness of the plate, the limit of diameter being about 1} inches, as this 
1 is the largest rivet that can be conveniently worked in practice. The table 
below shows the practice of various boiler makers for single and double-riveted 
lap joints of iron; this table has been compiled by Mr. Tweddell, who says: 
“ With rivets up to 1 inch diameter, it seems to be the universal practice to 
make the margin, or distance from outside of rivet to edge of plate, equal to 
the diameter of rivet. With very large rivets, 1^, If or If inch diameter, 
some makers allow rather less margin, namely, 1, 1^, If inch.” 


BOILER MAKERS’ PROPORTIONS FOR SINGLE AND DOUBLE-RIVETED LAP 
JOINTS, IRON PLATES AND IRON RIVETS. 


Thickness 

Lap Joints, single- 
riveted. 

Lap Joints, double-riveted. 

of 

Plate. 

Nominal 
Diameter 
of Rivet. 

Pitch of 
Rivets. 

Nominal 
Diameter 
of Rivet. 

Pitch of 
Rivets. 

Distance bet. 
pitch lines of 2 
rows of Rivets. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

3 

TS 

1 

4 



.... 

1 

4 

f 

H 

► . . . 


.... 

5 

To 

t 

i| 


2 f to 21 

4 to if 

3 

8 

1 to f 

If to 2 

f to f 

2 * to 2H 

l*to2 

1 

1 to i 

2 to 2f 

f to i 

2iy tO 3jS^ 

4 to 2f 

t 

f tO 1 

2 ) to 2} 

z to 1 

2 f to 3| 

2 to 2f 

3 

4 

1 to If 

2 ) to 2| 

1 to If 

3 to 41 

2 to 21 

7 

$ 

1 to If 

21 to 3 

4 

3f to 3f 

2f 

1 

1 10 1} 

2 ) to 2f 

n to u 

31 

2 ) to 2f 

H 

If to If 

2f to 3 

if 

3f 

2 i 


BOILER MAKERS’ PROPORTIONS FOR BUTT JOINTS, DOUBLE STRAPS, AND 
DOUBLE-RIVETED (ZIGZAG) IRON PLATES AND IRON RIVETS. 


Thickness 
of Plate. 

Diameter of 
Rivets. 

Pitch of 
Rivets. 

Breadth of 
■Straps. 

Thickness 
of Straps. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

f 

i 

31 

8f 

1 

it 

if 

3f 

n 

i 


i 

4 

10 

Tt> 

1 5 

TS 

Wz 

41 

101 


l 

4 

41 

14 

f 

4V 

l* 

4f 

14 

t! 

4 

4 

5 

121 

i 

1A 

1A 

51 

131 


4 

ift 

5A 

13 

1 3 

TtT 


D 


APPROXIMATE EFFICIENCY OF STEEL JOINTS OF VARIOUS 
KINDS COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE 
SOLID PLATE (=100). 



Efficiency per cent. 

Thickness of Plates. 


Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 


1 to f 

1 to § 

1 to f 

Original solid plate. 

100 

100 

100 

Lap joint, single-riveted, punched. 

50 

45 

40 

“ “ drilled. 

55 

50 

45 

“ double-riveted, punched. 

75 

70 

65 

“ “ drilled. 

80 

75 

70 

Butt joint, double-covered, double-riveted, punched 

75 

70 

65 

“ “ “ drilled.. 

80 

75 

70 


MARGIN AND LAP OF STEEL PLATES. 

A margin equal to the diameter of the holes is sufficient for drilled steel 
plates in lap joints, but in the case of high bearing pressures, as in the double- 
covered butts, it has been found desirable to increase the margin slightly be¬ 
yond the diameter of the hole. 

In zigzag double-riveting, Prof. Kennedy observes: “It has been found 
(with drilled holes) that the net metal measured zigzag should be from 30 to 
35 per cent, in excess of that measured straight across, in order to insure a 

2 d 

straight fracture. This corresponds to a diagonal pitch of - p -)—, if p be 

3 3 

the straight pitch and d the diameter of the rivet hole. To find the proper 
breadth of lap for a double-riveted joint, it is probably best to proceed by first 
setting this pitch off, and then finding from it the longitudinal pitch, or dis¬ 
tance between the centers, of the lines of rivets.’’ 


21 





















































HORSE POWER OF BOILERS. 

Tne standard, adopted by the judges at the Centennial Exhibition, of 30 lbs. 
water per hour evaporated from 212°, for each horse power, is a fair one for 
both boilers and engines, and has been favorably received by engineers and 
steam men ; but as the same boiler may be made to do more or less work, with 
less or greater economy, the rating of a boiler should be based on the amount 
of water it will evaporate at its most economical rate. 

Each nominal horse power of boilers requires 1 cu. ft. of water per hour. 

In calculating horse power of steam boilers— 

For Tubular Boilers—15 square ft. of heating surface=l H. P. 

For Flue Boilers—12 square ft. of heating surface_l H. P. 

For Cylinder Boilers—10 square ft. of heating surlace=l H. P. 

The rate of combustion should not exceed 0.3 pound of coal per hour for 
each sq. ft. of heating surface, except where the quantity of steam is of 
greater importance than economy of fuel. 

Where a blast is used, the grate surface should be proportionately reduced 
to secure the best economy. 

The accumulation of scale on the interior, and of soot on the exterior, will ! 
seriously affect the efficiency and economy of the boilers. Only one-eighth j 
of an inch deposit of soot renders the heating surface practically useless. | 
One-sixteenth of an inch of scale or sediment will cause a loss of 13 per cent. ' 
in fuel. The result of a bad setting for a boiler has been known to be a loss ' 
of 21 per cent, in economy. 

THICKNESS AND WEIGHTS OF CAST IRON GAS PIPE. 


The weights and thicknesses of cast iron pipe are those given by the 
National Foundry and Pipe Works Co., Limited. 


Diameter 

in 

Inches. 

Thickness 

in 

Inches. 

Weight per 
foot in 
Pounds. 

Diameter 

in 

Inches. 

Thickness 

in 

Inches. 

Weight per 
foot in 
Pounds. 

3 

% 

13 

14 

9 

T<> 

87 

4 

% 

17 

16 

1 9 
■35 

108 

6 

tV 

30-27 

20 


150 

8 


40 

24 

% 

196 

10 

k 

55 

30 

A 

285 

12 


75 

36 

1 

390 


Each pipe lays 12 feet, or 440 lengths per mile. 


22 


TABLE SHOWING THICKNESS OF METAL AND WEIGHT IN LBS. PER LENGTH, 

OF CAST IRON PIPE, INCLUDING BOWLS. 


« 

w 

o 

55 


W 

PH 


PH 

o 

a 

hi 

55 



Size. 

i 

3 in. 

4 in. 

6 in. 

8 in. 

10 in. 

12 in. 

G e C G c c 

C C ’t 0 ‘-O 
— — CM M CO CO 

C 

NJO 

4 A 

be 

‘S 

; ; : ; : 

: : : : : 

• • • CO 

• • • • CO 

. . . .Gp. 

. . . . CM 

• • • 




• CO CO ^ L>- O 

G 



• C CO CO ^ 


bp 


. ’N 05 1/5 iO 


0 


. 0 LO ^ M CO 


!> 


* 

; of m* co co~rjT 



.OOWiCOOOO^ 


x: 

.'O ^1 CO MM O O 


it) 

. CD 

CO O — CO H LO 



.M CD 1— iO GO 

st 

.^ CO^OO CO 

; • ; • •rSrSS csf c<T co~ rjT 



• • • CD O —1 O O '>OC 


2= 

• • •(NOaOlOh-OiO • 

• — 

U 

. *. 06000 — 000 . 

a* 


. . . 0 ( 71 - 

O O 1- 0 C4 . 


. . .00 0 (N 'T 0 D CO O . 



• * 1—1 r— 

1 —4 »-H t-H M • 



OM^^INnOOQN • • 



O 00 iO CO OJH 

10 CO CO 03 • • 

•G 


tjh oi o' d 05 n h ci co 

\50 


COOGSlCO^asiOiCCO^ 

> 

?4 CO *0 CD 00 C5 

•—•co co 03 



CDkOOOC5COCD!MCO • • • • 


xz 

CO O ih CO CO ^ 



to 

05 O cd ’f - 

CO . . . . 

\©J 

iH\ 


•—< 00 h CO CO Ci 


St 

iM'flOONCJO . . . .. 

t—i * 



af CD ^ "N CD CO. 

ri 


O 1C 05 03 O. 


to 

N r4 O 03 00 d. 

H 


OC^CDiCt^CO. 


~ CM CO *0 CO.' 



Tfi O C O C 


C 

£1 

CD CO CO CD 

. 


to 

ooiCHd't 


SCO 

cS\ 


ococjx 


st 

r-. CO CO -rr 

:::::: ! 


6 

G C C G G £ 

.... 

c a a s a a 


■5 



co 

CO^GOOOCl^COO'fOG 

HHMHC4NCOCO 
































































TABLE OF WEIGHT OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL. 


Wrought iroD is here taken at 485 lbs. per cubic foot; or a specific I 
gravity of 7.77. Steel weighs about 490 lbs. per cubic foot ; therefore, 
for steel, an addition must be made to the tabular amounts of about 1 
pound in 100 lbs. 

At 485 lbs. per cubic foot, a cubic inch weighs .28067 lb.; a pound ! 
contains 3.5629 cubic inches ; and a ton 4.6186 cubic feet; and this is 
about the average of hammered iron. The usual assumption is 480 
lbs. per cubic foot ; which is nearer the average of ordinary rolled iron. 
At 480 lbs., a cubic inch weighs .2778 of a lb.; a lb. contains 3.6 cubic 
inches; a ton, 4.6667 cubic feet. 


Thick- 

Weight 

Weight of 

Weight of 

Thick- 

Weight 

Weight of 

Wt. of a 

ness or 

of a 

a Square 

a Found 

ness or 

of a 

a Square 

Round 

Diameter 

Square 

Bar 

Bar 

Diam. in 

Square 

Bar 

Bar 

in Inches. 

Foot. 

1 foot long. 

1 foot long. 1 

Inches. 

Foot. 

1 foot long. 

1 ft. long 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ins. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1-32 

1.263 

.0033 

.0026 

2. 

80.83 

13.47 

10.58 

1-16 

2.526 

.0132 

.0104 

X 

85.89 

15.21 

11.95 

3-32 

3.789 

.0296 

.0213 

h 

90.94 

17.05 

13.39 

X 

5.052 

.0526 

.0414 

% 

95.99 

19.00 

14.92 

5-32 

6.315 

.0823 

. 0*5445 

X 

101.0 

21.05 

16.53 

3-16 

7.578 

1184 

.0930 

X 

106.1 

23.21 

18.23 

7-32 

8.811 

1612 

.1266 

X 

111.2 

25.47 

20.01 

/i 

10.10 

.2105 

.1653 

X 

116.2 

27.84 

21.87 

9-32 

11 37 

.2165 

.2093 

3 

121.3 

30.31 

23.81 

5-16 

12.63 

.3290 

.2583 

X 

126.3 

32.89 

25.83 

11-32 

13.89 

.3980 

.3126 

H 

131.4 

35.57 

27.94 

X 

15.16 

.4736 

.3720 

X 

136.4 

38.37 

30.13 

13-32 

16.42 

.5558 

.4365 

H 

141.5 

41.26 

32.41 

7-16 

17.68 

.6446 

. 5063 

% 

146 5 

44.26 

34.76 

15-32 

18.95 

.7400 

. 5813 

X 

151.6 

47,37 

37.20 

X 

20.21 

.8420 

.6613 

X 

156.6 

50.57 

39.72 

9-16 

22.73 

1.066 

.8370 

4. 

161.7 

53.89 

42.33 

X 

25.26 

1.316 

1.083 

X 

166.7 

57.31 

45.01 

11-16 

27.79 

1.592 

1.250 

X 

171.8 

60.84 

47.78 

X 

30.31 

1.895 

1.488 

>8 

176.8 

64.47 

50.63 

13-16 

32.84 

2.223 

1.746 

Vi 

181.9 

68.20 

53.57 

X 

35.37 

2.579 

2.025 

% 

186.9 

■72.05 

56.59 

15-16 

37.89 

2.960 

2.325 

X 

192.0 

75.99 

59.69 

1. 

40.42 

3.368 

2.645 


197.0 

80.05 

62.87 

1-16 

42 94 

3.803 

2.986 

5. 

202.1 

84.20 

66.13 

X 

45.47 

4.283 

3,348 

X 

207.1 

88.47 

69.48 

3-16 

48.00 

4.750 

3.730 

‘4 

212.2 

92.63 

72.91 

v* 

50.52 

5.283 

4.133 

1/ 

217.2 

97.31 

76.43 

5-16 

53.05 

5.802 

4.557 

V* 

‘2*2*2 3 

101.9 

80.02 

X 

55.57 

6.368 

5.001 

% 

227.3 

106,6 

83.70 

7-16 

58.10 

6.960 

5,466 

X 

232.4 

111 4 

87,46 

!4 

60.63 

7.578 

5.952 

X 

237.5 

116.3 

91.31 

9-16 

63.15 

8.223 

6.458 

6. 

242.5 

121.3 

95.23 

H 

11-16 

65.68 
68.20 

8.893 

9.591 

6.985 

7.533 

For Coppek, add l-7th part. 

% 

70 73 

10.31 

8 101 

.LEAD, mult. Dy 1.47. 


13-16 

% 

15-16 

73.26 

75.78 

78.31 

11.07 

11.84 

12.64 

8.690 

9.300 

9.930 

Brass, mult, by 1.06 
Zinc, mult, by .9. 

Tin, mult, by .95. 


All approximate. 



DIFFERENT STANDARDS FOR WIRE GAUGE IN USE IN 
THE UNITED STATES. 

Dimensions of Sizes in Decimal Parts of an Inch. 


Number of | 
Wire Gauge. 

American, 
or Brown & 
Sharpe. 

c5® 

-G.O 

.2 <Z2 

- u 

.2 © 

*3©' 
G°.u 
* ® 
v ® 

■5 *5 wif 
a a o'* 

2 

Trenton Iron 

Co., 

Trenton, N. J. 

G.W. Prentiss, 

Holyoke, 

Mass. 

X 2 OQ 

•-* S3 ■— 

W g « 

~ V- *5 

Number of 

Wire Gauge. 

000000 



46 




000000 

oooon 



43 

.45 



00000 

0000 

.46 

.454 

393 

.4 



0000 

000 

.40964 

. 425 

.362 

•36 

.3586 


000 

00 

.3648 

.38 

.331 

.33 

.3282 


00 

0 

.32486 

.34 

.307 

.305 

.2994 


0 

1 

.2893 

.3 

.283 

.285 

.2777 


1 

2 

.25763 

.284 

.263 

.265 

.2591 


2 

3 

.22942 

.259 

244 

.245 

.2401 


3 

4 

.20431 

.238 

.225 

. 225 

.223 


4 

5 

.18194 

.22 

.207 

.205 

.2047 


5 

6 

.16202 

. 203 

192 

.19 

. 1885 


6 

7 

14428 

.18 

177 

.175 

.1758 


7 

8 

.12849 

.165 

. 162 

.16 

. 1605 


8 

9 

.11443 

148 

148 

145 

.1471 


9 

10 

.10189 

134 

135 

.13 

.1351 


10 

11 

.090742 

.12 

.12 

.1175 

. 1205 


11 

12 

.080808 

109 

105 

.105 

. 1065 


12 

13 

.071961 

.095 

.092 

,0925 

.0928 


13 

14 

.064084 

.083. 

.08 

.08 

.0816 

.083 

14 

15 

.057068 

.072 

.072 

.07 

.0726 

.072 

15 

16 

05082 

.065 

.063 

.061 

.0627 

.065 

16 

17 

.045257 

.058 

.054 

.0525 

.0546 

.058 

17 

18 

.040303 

049 

.047 

.045 

.0478 

.049 

18 

19 

.03589 

.042 

041 

.04 

.0411 

.04 

19 

20 

.031961 

.035 

.035 

.035 

.0351 

.035 

20 

21 

.028462 

032 

.032 

.031 

.0321 

.0315 

21 

22 

.025347 

.028 

.028 

.028 

.029 

.0295 

22 

23 

.022571 

.025 

.025 

.025 

.0261 

.027 

23 

24 

.0201 

.022 

.023 

.0225 

.0231 

.025 

24 

25 

.0179 

.02 

.02 

.02 

.0212 

.023 

25 

26 

.01594 

.018 

.018 

.018 

.0194 

.0205 

26 

27 

.014195 

.016 

.017 

.017 

.0182 

.01875 

27 

28 

.012641 

.014 

.016 

.016 

.017 

.0165 

28 

29 

.011257 

.013 

.015 

.015 

.0163 

.0155 

29 

30 

.010025 

.012 

.014 

.014 

.0156 

.01375 

30 ’ 

31 

.008928 

01 

0135 

013 

.0146 

.01225 

31 

32 

.00795 

.009 

.013 

.012 

.0136 

.01125 

32 

33 

.00708 

.008 

Oil 

011 

.013 

.01025 

33 

34 

.006304 

.007 

.01 

.01 

.0118 

.0095 

34 

35 

.005614 

.005 

.0095 

.0095 

.0109 

.009 

35 

36 

.005 

.004 

.oat 

.009 

.01 

.0075 

36 

37 

.004453 


.0085 

.0085 

. 0095 

.0065 

37 

38 

.003965 


.008 

.008 

.009 

.00575 

38 

39 

.003531 


.0375 

.0075 

.0083 

.005 

39 

40 

.003144 


.007 

.007 

.0078 

.0045 

40 


























































TABLES ON THE MEASUREMENT OF HEAT AND ITS EFFECT ON DIFFERENT MATERIALS. 

FORMULA FOR CONVERSION OF CENTIGRADE DEGREES INTO FAHRENHEIT AND VICE-VERSA. 

Centigrade X f + 32=Fahrenheit. Fahrenheit X — 32=Centigrade. 

The two tables below give the difference between Centigrade-Fahrenheit and Fahrenheit-Centigrade from the boiling point of water to the 
congealing point of mercury. 


TABLE No. 1. 


Centi¬ 

grade. 

Fahr’n- 

heit. 


Centi¬ 

grade. 

Fahr’n- 

heit. 

j Centi- 
1 grade 

Fahr’n-j 
heit. 1 

Centi¬ 

grade. 

Fahr’n- 

heit. 


Centi¬ 

grade. 

Fahr’n 

heit. 

+100° 

i 212° 


-r72° 

+ 161.6° 

+44° 

+ 111.2° 


+16° 

+60.8° 


_loo 

+10.4 

91) 

210.2 


71 

159.8 

43 

109.4 


15 

59 


13 

8.6 

98 

208.4 


70 

158 

42 

107.6 


14 

57.2 


14 

6.8 

97 

206.6 


69 

156.2 

41 

105.8 


13 

55.4 


15 

5 

96 

204.8 


68 

154.4 

40 

104 


12 

53.6 


16 

3.2 

95 

203 


67 

152.6 

39 

102.2 


11 

51.8 


17 

1.4 

94 

201.2 


66 

150.8 

38 

100.4 


10 

50 


18 

0.4 

93 

199.4 


65 

149 

37 

98.6 


9 

48.2 


19 

o o 

92 

197.6 


64 

147 2 

36 

96.8 


S 

46.4 


20 

4 

91 

195.8 


63 

145.4 

35 

95 


7 

44.6 


21 

5.8 

90 

194 


62 

143.6 

34 

93.2 


6 

42.8 


22 

7.0 

89 

192.2 


61 

141.8 

33 

91.4 


5 

42 


23 

9.4 

88 

190.4 


60 

140 | 

32 

89.6 


4 

39.2 


24 

11.2 

87 

188.6 


59 

138.2 

31 

87.8 


3 

37.4 


25 

13 

86 

186.8 


58 

136.4 

30 

86 


2 

35.6 


26 

14 8 

85 

185 


57 

134.6 

29 

84.2 


1 

33.8 


27 

16.6 

S4 

183.2 


56 

132.8 

28 

82.4 


0 

32 


28 

18.4 

83 

181 4 


55 

131 

27 

80.6 


—1 

30.2 


29 

20.2 

82 

179.6 


54 

129,2 

26 

78.8 


2 

28.4 


30 

22 

81 

177.8 


53 

127.4 

25 

77 


3 

26.6 


31 

23.8 

80 

176 


52 

125.6 

24 

75.2 


4 

24.8 


32 

25.6 

79 

174.2 


51 

123.8 

23 

78.4 


5 

23 


33 

27.4 

78 

172.4 


50 

122 

22 

71.6 


6 

21.2 


34 

29.2 

77 

170.6 


49 

120.2 

21 

69.8 


7 

19.4 


35 

31 

76 

168.8 


48 

118.4 

20 

68 


8 

17.6 


36 

32.8 

75 

167 


47 

116.6 

19 

66 2 


9 

15.8 


37 

34 6 

74 

165.2 


46 

114.8 

18 

04.4 


10 

14 


38 

36.4 

73 

163.4 


45 

113 

17 

62.6 


11 

12.2 


39 

38.2 












40 

40 


TABLE No. 2. 


Fahr’ht 

Centigr 

Fahr'ht 

Centigr 

Fahr’ht 

Centigr, 

Fahr’ht 

Centigr 

Fahr’ht Centigr 

+212° 

+100 ° 

+2050 

+96.11° 

+198° 

+92.22° 

1 +191° 

+88.33 


+184° j- 84.44 

211 

99.44 

204 

95.55 

197 

91.67 

1 190 

87.78 


183 83.89 

210 

98.89 

203 

95 

196 

91.11 

189 

87.22 


182 83.33 

209 

98.33 

202 

94 44 

195 

90.55 

188 

86.67 


181 1 82.78 

208 

97.78 

201 

93.89 

194 

90 

187 

86.11 


180 ! 82.22 

207 

97.22 

200 

93.31 

193 

89.44 

186 

85.55 


179 | 81.67 

206 

96.67 

199 

92.78 

192 

88.89 

185 

85 


178 81.11 


TABLE No. 2.—Continued. 


Fahr’bJt’entigr 

Fahr'ht Centigr 

Fahr'ht Centigr 

j 

Fahr’ht CeDtigr 

Fahr’ht 

Centigr 

-177° 

80.55 

+133° 

56.11° 

+89° 

+31 67° 

+45° 

+7.22° 

+1° 

-17.22° 

176 

80 

132 

55.55 

S8 

31.11 

44 

6.67 

0 

17.78 

175 

79.44 

131 

55 1 

87 

30.55 

43 

6.11 

—1 

18.33 

174 

78.89 

130 

54.44 

86 

30 

42 

5.55 

2 

18.89 

173 

78.33 

129 

53.89 

85 

29 44 

41 

5 

3 

19.44 

172 

77.78 

128 

53.33 

84 

28.89 

40 

4 44 

4 

20 

171 

77 22 

127 

52.78 

83 

28.33 

39 

3.89 

5 

20.55 

170 

76.07 

126 

52.22 

82 

27.78 

38 

3.33 

6 

21.11 

169 

76.11 

125 

51 67 

81 

9.7 22 

37 

2.78 

7 

21.67 

168 

75.55 

124 

51.11 

80 

26.67 

36 

2-22 

8 

22.22 

167 

75 

123 

50.55 

79 

26.11 

35 

1.67 

9 

22.78 

166 

74.44 

122 

50 

78 

25.55 

34 

1.11 

10 

23.33 

165 

73.89 

121 

49 44 

77 

25 

33 

0.55 

11 

23.89 

164 

72.33 

120 

48.89 

76 

24.44 

32 

0 

12 

24.44 

163 

72.78 

119 

48.33 

75 

23.89 

31 

—0.55 

13 

25 

162 

71.22 

118 

47.78 

74 

23.33 

30 

111 

14 

25.55 

161 

71.67 

117 

47.22 

73 

22.78 

29 

1.67 

15 

26.11 

160 

71.11 

116 

46.67 

72 

22 22 

28 

9 22 

16 

26.67 

159 

70.55 

115 

46.11 

71 

21.67 

27 

2.78 

17 

27.22 

158 

70 

114 

45.55 

70 

21.11 

26 

3.33 

.18 

27.78 

157 

69.44 

113 

45 

69 

20,55 

25 

3.89 

19 

28.33 

156 

68.89 

112 

44 44 

68 

20 

24 

4.44 

20 

28.89 

155 

68.33 

111 

43.89 

67 

19.44 

23 

5 

21 

29.44 

154 

67.78 

110 

43.33 

66 

18.89 

22 

5.55 

22- 

30 

153 

67.22 

109 

42.78 

65 

18 33 

21 

6.11 

23 

30.15 

152 

66.67 

108 

4‘i *22 

64 

17.78 

20 

6.67 

24 

31.11 

151 

66.11 

107 

41.67 1 

63 

17.22 

19 

7.22 

25 

31.67 

150 

65.55 

106 

41.11 

62 

16.67 

18 

7.78 

26 

32.22 

149 

65 

105 

40.55 

61 

16.11 

17 

8.33 

27 

32.78 

148 

64 44 

104 

40 

60 

15.55 

16 

8 89 

28 

33 33 

147 

63.89 

103 

39.44 

59 

15 

15 

9.44 

29 

33.89 

146 

63.33 

102 

38.89 

58 

14.44 

14 

10 

30 

34.44 

145 

62.78 

101 

38.33 

57 

13.89 

13 

10.55 

31 

35 

144 

62.22 

100 

37.78 

56 

13.33 

12 

11.11 

32 

35.55 

143 

61.67 

99 

37.22 

55 

12.78 

11 

11.67 

33 

36.11 

142 

61 11 

98 

36 67 

54 

12 22 

10 

12.22 

34 

36.67 

141 

60.55 

97 

36.11 

53 

11.67 

9 

12.78 

35 

37 22 

140 

60 

96 

35.55 

52 

11.11 

8 

13.33 

36 

37.78 

139 

59.44 

95 

35 

51 

10.55 

7 

13.89 

37 

38.33 

138 

58.89 

94 

34.44 

50 

10 

6 

14,44 

38 

38.89 

137 

58.33 

93 

33.89 

49 

9.44 

5 

15 

39 

39 44 

136 

57.78 

92 

33 33 

48 

8.89 

4 

15.55 

40 

40 

135 

57.22 

91 

32.78 

47 

8.33 

3 

16.11 



134 

56.07 

90 

32.22 

46 

7.78 

2 

16.67 




24 

















































































BOILING POINT OF WATER AT DIFFERENT PRESSURES. 


(1 Atmosphere, 14.7 lbs. per square inch.) 


Pressures in 
Atmospheres. 

Boiling Point 
Centigrade. 

Boiling Point 
Fahrenheit. 

1 

100.00° 

212.00° 

2 

120.60 

249.08 

3 

133.91 

273.04 

4 

144.00 

291.20 

5 

152.22 

306 00 

6 

159.22 

318.60 

7 

165.34 

329.61 

8 

170.81 

339.46 

9 

175.77 

348.39 

10 

180.31 

356.56 

11 

184.50 

364.10 

12 

188.41 

371.14 

13 

192 08 

377.74 

14 

195.53 

383.95 


COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION OF METALS FOR EACH DEGREE 

CENTIGRADE. 

Multiply the piece of metal in question by the change in temperature in 
degrees Centigrade, and the result will be the increase or decrease in length 
as the case may be; the length increases with heat and decreases with cold. 

Lead.O.0000285 Copper.0.0000175 Zinc.0.060029 

Iron, cast.0.0000106 Aluminum_0.0000231 Tin.0.000022 

Iron, wrought.0.0000114 Brass.0.000019 Hard Rubber.0.000077 

Glass.0.0000085 Platinum.0.000009 

Gold.04 00015 Silver.0.000019 


RELATIVE CONDUCTIVITY OF METALS FOR HEAT AND ELEC¬ 
TRICITY. 


Metals in Vacuum. 

Heat. 

Electricity. 

Metals in Vacuum. Heat. 

Electricity. 


.100. 

100. 

Steel . 

10.3 



. 74.8 

77.43 

Lead. 

7.9 

7.77 

Gold. 

. 54.8 

55.19 

Platinum. 

9.4 

10.53 

Zinc. 

. 28.1 

27.39 

Palladium. 

7.3 

6.91 

Brass. 

. 24.0 

22.00 

German Silver .... 

6.3 

6.0 

Tin. 

. 15.4 

11.45 

Bismuth (in air)... 

1.8 

1.8 

Iron. 

. 11.9 

14.44 

Aluminum (in air). 

34.35 

30.71 


MISCELLANEOUS TABLES. 

Low Melting Alloys. 

Cadmium, Lead, Bismuth and Tin form an interesting group of metals 
which fuse together in different proportions to form alloys that become 
liquid below the boiling point of water. The metals themselves have com¬ 
paratively high melting points, as the annexed table shows. 

Centigrade. Fahrenheit. 


Cadmium. 318° 604.4° 

Lead. 325 617.0 

Bismuth. 260 500.0 

Tin. 226.5 434.9 


The proportions in the table where Cadmium, Lead and Bismuth are used 
are mixed in atomic-weight proportions, as also the first three mixtures in the 
table where Cadmium, Tin, Lead and Bismuth are used; but curiously 
enough none of these mixtures give as low a melting alloy as those found ex¬ 
perimentally, and which have no connection to atomic mixtures; further, 
these lowest melting alloys do not have a definite melting point, i. e., inside 
of one degree. 


Rose Metal. d’Arcet Metal. 


| Cadmium 

..7.1 

per cent. 6.7 

per cent. 

Tin.25 per cent. 

18.8 per cent. 

Lead.... 

39.7 

“ 43.4 


Lead.25 

U 

31.2 “ 

Bismuth. 

53.2 

“ 49.9 

U 

Bismuth. 25 

u 

50.0 “ 

Melting point j 

89.5° C. 
193. l°F. 

95°C. 

203°F. 

Melting point j 

95° 

203° 

C. 95° C. 

F. 203° F. 

Cadmium. 

. 10.S per ct. 10.2 per ct. 7.0 per ct. 6.2 per ct. 

10.0 per ct. 12.5 per ct. 

Tiu. 

..14.2 

“ 14.3 “ 

14.8 

“ 9.4 “ 

13.3 “ 

12.5 “ 

Lead... . 

...24.9 

“ 25.1 “ 

26.0 

“ 34.4 “ 

26.7 “ 

25.0 “ 

Bismuth.. 


“ 50.4 “ 

52.2 

“ 50.0 “ 

50.0 1 

50.0 » 

Melting points J 

65.5° 67.5° 

149.9° 153.5° 

68.5° 

155.3° 

76.5° 60 to 

169.7° 140 : to 

65° 

149° 

65.5 to 70 C. 
149.8 to 158 - F. 


25 
























































TO COMPUTE VELOCITY OF STEAM. 


Into a Vacuum. Rule.—T o temperature of steam add constant 459, and 
multiply square root of sum by 60.2; quotient will give velocity in feet per 
second. 

Into Atmosphere. 3.6 \/h=Y. Y representing velocity as above, and h height 
in feet of a column of steam of given pressure and uniform density, weight of which 
is equal to pressure in unit of base. 

Velocity of steam, when flowing into a vacuum, is about 1550 feet per second 
when at a pressure equal to the atmosphere ; when at 10 atmospheres, velocity 
is increased to 1780 feet; and when flowing into the air under a similar 
pressure it is about 650 feet per second, increasing to 1600 feet for a pressure 
of 20 atmospheres. 


VELOCITY OF STEAM ESCAPING INTO THE ATMOSPHERE 


Pressure above 
Atmosphere. 

Velocity per j 

Second. 

Pressure above 
Atmosphere. 

Velocity per 
Second. 

Pounds. 

Feet. 

Pounds. 

Feet. 

1 

540 

50 

1736 

2 

698 

60 

1777 

3 

814 

70 

1810 

4 

905 

80 

1835 

5 

981 

90 

1857 

10 

1232 

100 

1875 

20 

1476 

110 

1889 

30 

1601 

120 

1900 

40 

1681 

130 

1909 

HEAT OF BAROMETER AT DIFFERENT ELEVATIONS. 

Height in feet above 

Height in feet above 


Sea Level. 

Barometer. 

Sea Level. 

Barometer. 

0 

30 inches. 

5000 

24.73 inches. 

500 

29.42 u 

6000 

23.83 “ 

1000 

28 85 “ 

7000 

22.93 “ 

1500 

28.34 “ 

8003 

22.04 “ 

2000 

27.78 “ 

9000 

21.22 “ 

3000 

26.74 “ 

10000 

20.43 “ 

4000 

25.70 « 




FLOW OF GAS IN PIPES. 


To compute the Volumes of Gas Discharged Through Pipes .— (Clegg.) 

Io50 d ^ =V. d representing diameter of the pipe, and h the height of 

t g 

the water in inches, denoting the pressure upon the gas, l length of pipe in yards, 
g specific gravity of the gas, and V the volume in cubic feet per hour, 
g may be assumed for ordinary computation at .42. 

An accurate experiment was made by Mr. Clegg on the quantity of gas 
discharged through a four inch main, six miles in length, with a pressure of 
three inches of water. 

Specific gravity=0.398. The result showed a very close approximation to 
the rules. 

Quantity discharged by calculation, 873 cu. ft. 

“ “ experiment, 852 cu. ft. 


RATE OF COMBUSTION OF COAL IN BOILER FURNACES. 


Kind of Boiler. Lbs. per sq. ft. 

of grate per hour. 

Lowest rate of Combustion in Cornish Boilers. 4 

Usual rate in Cornish Boilers. 1° 

L'sual rate in Factory Boilers. 10 to 18 

j Usual rate in Marine Boilers. 14 to 26 

Usual rate in Locomotive Boilers (with blast-pipe). 60 to 130 


FOREIGN TERMS FOR HORSE-POWER, AND VALUES IN UNITS 

PER MINUTE. 


Country. 

Terms. 

Values per minute. 

Eng. values per min. 

U.S. & Eng.. 

France.| 

Germany.... 

Sweden. 

Russia. 

Horse-power. 

Force'de cheval, or 

cheval-vapeur. 

Pferde-kraft. 

Hast-kraft. 

Syl-lochad. 

33,000 foot-pounds. 
45,000 kilogram-1 

meters.J 

30,780 fuss-pfunde.. 
30,000 Skalpund-fot 
33,000 Fyt-funt. 

33,000 foot-pounds. 

32,548.2 “ 

34,935 “ “ 

32,523.6 “ 

33,000 “ “ 


Note.— A Pferde-starke=480 Fuss-pfunde per second=24,800 foot-pounds 
per minute. 


26 














































PROPER SIZES OF GAS APPARATUS. 


The proper sizes of the different apparatus used in a gas works is always a 
very important question with the gas engineer. The units of different appa¬ 
ratus given below are those given by Herr Reissner, chief engineer of con¬ 
struction of the Berlin gas works and are termed Berlin Normals or Berlin 
Units. 

GENERAL. 

The unit of production is the output of the darkest day in December, 
of course, meaning the largest daily output in that month. 

RETORTS. 

Using silesian coal, the retorts should have a capacity of 8830 cubic feet of 
gas production per 24 hours per retort or mouth piece, with 15 per cent, re¬ 
serve, never less than 10 per cent. 

CONDENSERS. 

The condensers must have at the very least 1 square foot of cooling surface 
to every 274 cubie feet of gas produced each 24 hours ; i. e., 3.65 square feet of 
cooling surface per 1000 cubic feet of production each 24 hours. This may, 
in poorer construction, be advantageously increased to 4.5 square feet per 1000 
cubic feet. 

When multitubular condensers are used the shell with connections gives 
about the same number of square feet of cooling surface with air that the 
tubes do with water. 

SCRUBBER. 

Those filled with wood should have minimum 5 cubic feet of room per 1000 
cubic feet of daily production of 24 hours, maximum 6 cubic feet per 1000 
cubic feet. 

EXHAUSTERS. 

Always one extra machine as reserve. 

PURIFIERS. 

Four-tray box for iron sponge requires 1 square foot of bottom surface for 
852 cubic feet of production or 1.17 square feet per 1000 cubic feet, where all 
four boxes are used. 

STATION METER. 

Should be of such size that the drum will make 80 revolutions per hour. 
On account of the irregularities in production 10 per cent, should be added 
to the maximum production in making this calculation. 


GAS HOLDER. 


Minimum capacity to be 80 per cent, of greatest daily production. 

WORKS CONNECTIONS. 

Five benches of 9 retorts require 12.4 inch connection from hydraulic. 
The different pipes leading from the hydraulics when combined must connect 
to a sufficiently larger pipe to give the flow of gas a speed of 10 feet per sec¬ 
ond. By-pass connections back of the apparatus running between two prin¬ 
cipal pipes can be decreased to give a speed of 12 feet per second. 

The size for the principal mains from the holder are calculated by taking 
the largest hourly December day production as the unit of capacity, the hour 
to be calculated as of the 24 hours production. The diameter to be such 
that there will be only a loss in pressure of ^ in. per 1000 feet. 


EFFECT OF CARBON DIOXID (CO 2 ) ON THE CANDLE POWER 

OF GAS. 


To 

21 per cent. 

CO 2 in gas causes a loss of 

9 per cent. 

in Candle Power. 

To 

5 a 

tt it ti ti 


20 

tt 

(( C< 

To 

10 “ 

it it t< l. 


40 

ti 

it ti 

To 

20 “ 

it tl it t( 


75 

a 

H it 

To 

30 

it (i it it 


90 

a 

it ti 

To 

58 “ 

ti U ti It 


100 

a 

ti it 

THE PER CENT. LOSS OF CANDLE 

POWER BY ADMIXTURE OF 



DIFFERENT PER CENTS. OF 

AIR. 



Per Cent, of 

Loss of Light 

Per Cent, of 

Loss of Light 


Air. 

Per Cent. 


Air. 


Per Cent. 


1 per cent. 

6 per cent. 

8 per cent. 

58 per cent. 


2 

11 

9 

1 1 


64 “ 


3 

18 

10 

ti 


67 


4 

26 “ 

15 

tt 


80 “ 


5 “ 

33 

20 

tt 


93 “ 


6 

44 

30 

tt 


98 


7 

53 “ 

40 

tt 


100 

























TABLE OF THE WEIGHTS OF GASHOLDERS. 

IN POUNDS FOE EVERY ONE-TENTH OF AN INCH MAXIMUM PRESSURE, AND FROM TWENTY TO TWO HUNDRED FEET IN DIAMETER. 


Diameter 

of 

Gasholder 
in Feet. 

Weight in Lbs. 
for each l-10th 
of an Inch | 
Pressure. 

Diameter 

of 

Gasholder 
in Feet. 

Weight in Lbs. 
for each i -loth 
of an Inch 
Pressure. 

Diameter 

of 

Gasholder 
in Feet. 

Weight in Lbs. 
for each 1-lOth 
of an Inch 
Pressure. 

Diameter 

of 

Gasholder 
in Feet. 

Weight in Lbs. 
for each l-iotlr 
of an Inch 
Pressure. 

Diameter 

of 

Gasholder 
in Feet. 

Weight in Lbs. 
for each l-10th 
of an Inch 
Pressure. 

Diameter 

of 

Gasholder 
in Feet. 

Weight in Lbs. 
for each l-10th 
of an Inch 
Pressure. 

20 Ft. , 

161 Lbs. 

42 Ft. 

722 Lbs. 

64 Ft, 

1676 Lbs. 

86 Ft. 

3026 Lbs. 

108 Ft. 

4772 Lbs. 

130 Ft. 

6914 Lbs. 

21 

181 

43 

757 

65 

1729 

87 

3097 

109 

4861 

131 

7021 

22 

198 

44 

792 

66 

1782 

88 

3168 

110 

4950 

132 

7128 

23 

217 

45 

828 

67 

1837 

89 

3241 

111 

5041 

133 

7237 

24 

236 

46 

866 

68 

1S92 

90 

3314 

112 

5132 

134 

7346 

25 

256 

47 

904 

69 

1948 

91 

3388 

113 

5224 

135 

7456 

26 

277 

48 

943 

70 

2005 

92 

3463 

114 

5317 

136 

7567 

27 

298 

49 

982 

71 

2062 

93 

3538 

115 

5410 

137 

7678 

28 

321 

50 

1023 

72 

2121 

94 

3615 

116 

5505 

138 

7791 

29 

344 

51 

1064 

73 

2180 

95 

3692 

117 

5630 

139 

7904 

30 

368 

52 

1106 

74 

2240 

96 

3770 

118 

5696 

140 

8018 

31 

393 

53 

1149 

75 

2301 

97 

3849 

119 

5793 

141 

8133 

32 

419 

54 

1193 

76 

2363 

98 

3929 

120 

5891 

142 

8249 

33 

446 

55 

1238 

77 

2426 

99 

4010 

121 

5990 

143 

8366 

34 

473 

56 

1283 

78 

2489 

100 

4091 

122 

6089 

144 

8483 

35 

501 

57 

1329 

79 

2553 

101 

4173 

123 

6189 

145 

8601 

36 

530 

58 

1376 

80 

2618 

102 

4256 

124 

6290 

146 

8720 

37 

560 

59 

1424 

81 

2684 

103 

4340 

125 

6392 

147 

8840 

38 

591 

60 

1473 

82 

2751 

104 

4425 

126 

6495 

148 

8961 

39 

622 

61 

1522 

83 

2818 

105 

4510 

127 

6598 

149 

9083 

40 

655 

62 

1573 

84 

2887 

106 

4597 

128 

6703 

150 

9205 

41 

688 

63 

1624 

85 

2956 

107 

! 

4684 

129 

6808 

200 

16364 


28 

























































GAS-LIQUOR. 


Under this heading is inclndedall waste liquor that contains Ammonia or any of its combinations, the fixed 
Nitrogen in the coal being the source of the Ammoniacal and Cyanogen compounds. The fixed Nitrogen in the coal 
is entirely, or nearly so, converted into Ammonia at any temperature of destructive distillation of coal, at or 
under 600° C. As the temperature of distillation is increased, Cyanogen compounds are formed, and a consid¬ 
erable per cent, of the Ammonia first formed, and also of the Cyanogen, are decomposed into their elementary 
compounds, a part of the Nitrogen so formed being retained as Nitrogen in the coke, and the balance passing 
into the gas as free Nitrogen. The ordinary temperature of distillation, in the present coal-gas practice, is gen¬ 
erally near 1100° C.; therefore the destruction of the Ammoniacal compounds first formed is very great. The 
analyses following give the amount of combined Nitrogen in bituminous coal that is converted into Ammonia 
and Cyanogen, at 1100° C. (approximately), given in per cents., with the per cents, of Nitrogen liberated by 
excessive heat. 

14.50 per cent, as Ammonium (N H 3 ) 

1.56 “ “ Cyanogen (C N) 2 

35.26 “ “ Nitrogen (N) 2 remains in gas. 

48.68 “ “ remains in the coke and tar. 

The per cent, of Nitrogen remaining in the coke depends largely upon the time of carbonization, and the 
total exclusion of air therefrom during the operation, e. g., an analysis of coke made from coal by three dif¬ 
ferent methods gave the following : 

G-as-retort coke contained 1.375 percent. Nitrogen (N) 2 

Bee-hive “ “ 0.511 

Coke from Carve ovens “ 0.384 “ “ 

These results show the per cent, of total Nitrogen in the coal that is converted into Ammonia and Cyanogen, 
and also the percent, of free Nitrogen in the gas and coke. From these results, and from the fact given above, 
that all the Nitrogen is converted into Ammonia at any temperature under 600° C., the amount of Ammonia 
per ton of coal can be approximately estimated if the combined Nitrogen in the coal is known, with the tem¬ 
perature of carbonization. 

The Ammoniacal liquor, as obtained from gas works, contains a variety of different salts of Ammonia, 
which are divisible into two classes —a volatile, and b fixed. The volatile compounds of Ammonia can be 


E 


29 



removed, as such., either by means of air or by heating with steam. The fixed compounds cannot, however, be 
removed in this way, but must first be decomposed with an alkali or an alkaline earth, and the Ammonia can 
then be easily removed, as such, by heating the solution. It is very questionable if there is any free Ammonia 
at any time in Gas-Liquor. If such does exist, in isolated cases, it must be where the coal is very free from 
sulphur, and the carbonization has taken place at such a temperature that very little Oarbon-dioxid is formed. 
The different compounds that have been ascertained by analysis are : 

a —VOLATILE COMPOUNDS. 

Ammonium carbonates (mono-, sesqui-, bi.) 

Ammonium sulphid. 

Ammonium hydrossulphid. 

Ammonium cyanide. 

Ammonium acetate. 

Free Ammonia (?) 

b —FIXED COMPOUNDS. 

Ammonium sulphate. 

Ammonium sulphid. 

Ammonium thiosulphate (hyposulphate). 

Ammonium thiocarbonate. 

Ammonium chlorid. 

Ammonium sulphocyanide (thiocyanate). 

Ammonium ferrocyanide. 

There are besides these compounds, Pyridine and other aromatic Ammonias. 

The different percentages in which the above compounds are formed depends largely upon the quality of the 
coal, e. 4 m a coal that lies underneath salt water will yield a large per cent, of Ammonium chlorides, while a 
coal which lies above both fresh and salt water, and is, therefore, a well-washed and drained coal, so far as 
alkalies are concerned, will give scarcely any or nc chloride. The percentages of Cyanide, Sulphid, Carbonate, 
etc., depends largely upon the per cent, of sulphur in the coal, and the temperature at which the coal is carbon¬ 
ized. Table No. 1 gives a series of analyses of Gas-Liquor taken from different parts of one gas works. The coal 
that was used in this case was undoubtedly taken from beneath salt water, as is shown by the large per cent, 
of chlorid in the liquor in the hydraulic main. 


30 


TABLE No. 1. 


ANALYSIS OF GAS-LIQUOR TAKEN FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF A WORKS. 


Color. 

Specific Gravity 15.5° C. 

Ounces by distillation test. 

Ounces by saturation test. 

Ammonium Sulphid—Grams per litre 
= NH3 

Ammonium Carbonate “ “ 

= N H3 

Ammonium Thiosulphate “ “ 

= N H3 

Ammonium Sulphate “ 

= N H3 “ 

Ammonium Sulphocyanid “ “ 

= N H3 

Ammonium Chlorid “ “ 

= N H3 “ “ 

Ammonium Ferocyanid “ “ 

= N H3 


Total Ammonia —Grams per litre... 

Total Fixed Ammonia in per cent... 

Total Ammonia f expressed in Kilograms 
A oral Ammonia, j p er cu |_,i c meter of liquor 

Value for Sulphate production. 


From one part 
of the 
Hydraulic. 


Muddy orange- 
turns "dark when 
exposed to the air 

1.011 

6.1 

2.7 

5.20 

2.60 

8.05 

2.75 

1.74 

0.40 

0.11 

0.03 

1.60 

0.36 

22.17 

7.04 


13.29 

59 

50 

Very poor. 


From another 
part of the 
Hydraulic. 


Same as the 
First. 

1.012 

6.0 

2.8 

6.29 
3.14 

7.29 
1.16 
1.17 
0.27 
0.49 
0.13 
1.86 
0.41 

20.79 

6.60 

Trace. 


13.14 
56 % 

50 

Very poor. 


From 

First 

Air Cooler. 


Clear. 

1.035 

16.2 

15.9 

34.71 

17.36 

48.34 

17.14 

Trace. 

Trace. 


0.13 

0.03 

1.70 

0.54 

0.31 

0.07 


35.13 
1.8 % 
133 

Very good. 


From 
Second 
Air Cooler. 


Trace. 

Trace. 

2.21 

0.71 

0.59 

0.14 


78.29 
1.85 % 
298 


From 
Third 
Air Cooler. 


Nearly Clear. 

1.075 

36.1 

35.7 

71.43 

35.71 

116.00 

41.14 

1.79 

0.59 


Brown-red 
from Tar-oil. 

1.115 

53.0 

52.5 

f 

-j 112.93 

5.03 
1.16 


2.87 

0.91 

1.79 

0.43 


115.43 


440 


From From 

Fourth J First 
Air Cooler. ! Washer. 


Dark Brown 
from Tar-oil. 

1.120 

58.0 

57.4 

120.60 

60.30 

173.23 

61.43 

10.93 

2.52 


1.53 

0.48 

5.36 

1.29 


126.00 
3.4 fa 
479 


Clear. 

1.022 

16.5 

16.1 

22.74 

11.37 

64.46 

22.86 

3.29 

0.73 


1.60 

0.36 

1.26 

0.40 


35.71 
4.2 % 
132 


From 

Second 

Washer. 


Very good. Excellent. Excellent. 1 Very good. 


Clear. 

1.010 

8.3 

8.1 

17.43 

8.71 

24.14 

8.57 

1.93 

0.44 


0.39 

0.09 

0.54 

0.17 


18.00 
4.0 fa 
68 

Insullicient 

strength 


31 


















































































Iri concentrating crude liquor, it must be borne in mind that Carbomdioxid will replace Sulphid, forming 
Carbonate of Ammonium from Ammonia sulphate, the Hydrogen sulphid bein6 liberated. This is often a £reat 
source of loss in concentrators, bein£ as hi6h as 60 per cent, in some cases, the Hydrogen sulphid bein£ driven 
so fast through the concentrated liquor that it carries with it lar6e quantities of the other volatile Ammonium 
compounds, either mechanically or partially decomposed. 

In concentrating Ammonia the concentration should not be carried too far or there will be loss, unless 
absorbed in a special absorber; and another difficulty arises from the per cent, of Ammonium carbonate 
becoming so 6reat that it solidifies when cold. The practical limit for concentration is 25° Baume. With 
the proper concentrating apparatus, which will remove both fixed and free Ammonia, this decree can be 
readily reached without loss, if the proper cooling appliances are used. Table Ho. 2 £>ives the specific gravity 
and the number of ^rams per litre for each decree Baume. As there are one thousand 6rams in a liter, the grains 
of Ammonia per litre £ive the per cent, by setting the decimal point forward one point, e. £., 32.5 6rams would 
equal 3.25 per cent, by weight. 



BAUME 

TABLE No. 2. 

AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY TABLE OF AMMONIA 

LIQUOR (CRUDE.) 

Degrees 

Specific 

Approximate amount of Ammonia 


Degrees 

Specific 

Approximate amount of Ammonia 

Baume. 

gravity. 

in grams per litre. 


Baume. 

gravity. 

in grams per litre. 

0 

1.000 

0.0 


16 

1.125 

104.0 

1 

1.007 

6.5 


17 

1.133 

110.5 

2 

1.014 

13.0 


18 

1.142 

117.0 

3 

1.021 

19.5 


19 

1.152 

123.5 

4 

1.029 

26.0 


20 

1.161 

130.0 

5 

1.036 

32.5 


21 

1.170 

136.5 

6 

1.043 

39.0 


22 

1.180 

143.0 

7 

1.051 

45.5 


23 

1.190 

149.5 

8 

1.059 

52.0 


24 

1.200 

156.0 

9 

1.066 

58.5 


25 

1.210 

162.5 

10 

1.074 

65.0 


26 

1.220 

169.0 

11 

1.082 

71.5 


27 

1.230 

175.5 

12 

1.091 

78.0 


28 

1.241 

182.0 

13 

1.099 

84.5 


29 

1.251 

188.5 

14 

1.107 

91.0 


30 

1.262 

195.0 

15 

1.116 

97.5 






32 























The strength of Gas-liquor is usually measured by the Twaddell hydrometer. This is a very convenient 
form of measurement, and in fact is the only place where the Twaddell is of any use. This hydrometer is di= 
vided into decrees and half decrees, each half decree representing a variation of 0.0025 of the unit of specific 
gravity—1.00000. Each decree “T” represents two ounces in the strength of liquor, per British gallon. By 
the term “strength of liquor” is meant that it requires the amount specified in ounces of sulphuric acid (spe= 
cific gravity 1.84) to neutralize one British gallon, e. g., the liquor which shows 5° “T” would require ten 
ounces of strong sulphuric acid to neutralize one gallon, and that gallon would produce, therefore, 13.34 
ounces of ammonium sulphate. The ammonium sulphate of commerce is practically 75 per cent, sulphuric 
acid. This method of testing crude liquor is only approximate, and a further error in this country is in the 
difference between our gallon and the English, the English gallon being 1.2 larger than ours. This factor is 
seldom taken into account when the Twaddell hydrometer is used, or if taken into account as it should be the 
real value of this hydrometer is lost, as the even degrees do not give even ounces in strength. It is imprac¬ 
ticable to convert Table No. 3 into United States gallons, as the Twaddell hydrometer would then be solely an 
arbitrary scale, and it would be much better to use the more popular and better known (Baume. 


TABLE NO. 3. 

TABLE OF STRENGTH OF CRUDE LIQUOR GIVEN IN DEGREES TWADDELL AND BAUME AT 15° C. 


Degrees Twaddell. 

Specific Gravitv. 

Weight per English Gallon 
in Pounds. 

Strength in Ounces 
per English Gallon. 

Degrees Baume. 

Approximated Strength in 
Ammonia per Litre. 

0.0 

1.0000 

10.0 

0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.5 

1.0025 

10.025 

1 

0.36 

2.3 

1.0 

1.005 

10.05 

2 

0.72 

4.6 

1.5 

1.0075 

10.075 

3 

1.07 

6.9 

‘2.0 

1.010 

10.10 

4 

1.50 

6.7 

2.5 

1.0125 

10.125 

5 

1.87 

12.1 

3.0 

1.015 

10.15 

6 

2.25 

14.6 

3.5 

1.0175 

10.175 

7 

2.62 

17.0 

4.0 

1.020 

10.20 

8 

3.00 

19.5 

4.5 

1.0225 

10.225 

9 

3.36 

21.8 

5.0 

1.0250 

10.25 

10 

3.72 

24.1 

5.5 

1.0275 

10.275 

11 

4.07 

26.4 

6.0 

1.030 

10.30 

12 

4.43 

28.8 

6.5 

1.0325 

10.325 

13 

4 79 

31.1 

7.0 

1.035 

10.35 

14 

5.14 

33.4 

7.5 

1.0375 

10.375 

15 

5.50 

35.7 

8.0 

1.040 

10.40 

16 

5.92 

38.4 

8.5 

1.0425 

10.425 

17 

6.27 

40.7 

9.0 

1.045 

10.46 

18 

6.63 

43.0 

9 5 

1.0475 

10.475 

19 

6.98 

45.3 

10.0 

1.050 

10.60 

20 

7.34 

47.7 


33 



























Table No. 4, £iven below, is very useful for general comparison, of Twaddell, Baume and specific gravity, 
and for American usa^e is really the only one of any £reat value, bein£, as it is, a ready reference of compar¬ 
ison of the two different systems with the standard S. G. 


TABLE No. 4. 


COMPARISON OP 1 TWADDELL WITH BAUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 15° C. 


Tw. 

Be. 

S. G. 

Tw. 

Be. 

S. G. 

Tw. 

Be. 

8. G. 

Tw. 

Be. 

8. G. ! 

Tw. 

Be. 

S. G. 

| Tw. 

Be. 

8. G. 

Tw. 

Be. 

8. G. 

0° 

0. ° 

1.000 

25° 

16.0° 

1.125 

50° 

28.8° 

1.250 

75° 

39.4° 

1.375 

100° 

48.1° 

1.500 

125° 

55.5° 

1.625 

150° 

61.8° 

1.750 

1 

0.7 

1.005 

26 

16.5 

1.130 

51 

29.3 

1.255 

76 

39.8 

1.380 

101 

48-4 

1.505 

126 

55.8 

1.630 

151 

62.1 

1.755 

2 

1.4 

1 010 

27 

17.1 

1.135 

52 

29.7 

1.260 

77 

40.1 

1.385 

102 

48.7 

1.510 

127 

56.0 

1.635 

152 

62.3 

1.760 

3 

2.1 

1.015 

28 

17.7 

1.14<i 

53 

30.2 

1.265 

78 

40.5 

1.390 

103 

49.0 

1.515 

128 

i 56.3 

1.640 

153 

62.5 

1.765 

4 

2.7 

1.020 

29 

18.3 

1.145' 

54 

30.6 

1.270' 

79 

40.8 

1.395: 

104 

49.4 

1.520 

129 

t 56.6 

1.645 

154 

62.8 

1.770 

5 

3.4 

1.025| 

30 

18.8 

1.150 

55 

31.1 

1.275 

80 

41.2 

1.400 

105 

49.7 

1.525 

130 

56.9 

1.650 

155 

63 0 

1.775 

6 

4.1 

1.030 

31 

19.3 

1.155 

56 

31.5 

1.280 

81 

41.6 

1.405 

106 

50.0 

1.530 

131 

57.1 

1 655 

156 

63 2 

1.780 

7 

4.7 

1.035 

32 

19.8 

1.160 

57 

32.0 

1:285 

82 

42.0 

1.410 

107 

50.3 

1 535 

132 

57.4 

1.660 

157 

63.5 

1.785 

8 

5.4 

1.040 

33 

20.3 

1.1651 

58 

32.4 

1.290- 

83 

42.3 

1 415 

108 

50.6 

1 540 

133 

57.7 

1.665 

158 

63.7 

1.790 

9 

6.0 

1.045 

34 

20.9 

1.170, 

59 

32.8 

1.295 

84 

42.7 

1.420 

109 

50.9 

1 545 

134 

57.9 

1.670 

159 

64.0 

1.795 

10 

6.7 

1.050; 

35 

21.4 

1.1761 

60 

33.3 

1.3001 

85 

43.1 

1.425 

110 

51 2 

1.550 

135 

58.2 

1.675 

160 

64.2 

1.800 

11 

7.4 

1.055' 

36 

22.0 

i .iso; 

61 

33.7 

1.3051 

86 

43.4 

1.430 

111 

51.5 

1 555 

136 

58.4 

1.680 

161 

64.4 

1.805 

12 

8.0 

1.060 

37 

22.5 

1.185 

02 

34.2 

1.310* 

87 

43.8 

1.435 

112 

51.8 

1.560 

137 

58.7 

1.685 

162 

64.6 

1.810 

13 

8.7 

1.065 

38 

23.0 

1.190 

63 

34.6 

1.315 

88 

44.1 

1.440 

113 

52.1 

1.565 

138 

58.9 

1.690 

163 

04. S 

1.815 

14 

9.4 

1.070 

39 

23.5 

1.195 

64 

35.0 

1.320 

89 

44.4 

1.445, 

114 

52.4 

1.570 

139 

59.2 

1.695 

164 

65.0 

1.820 

15 

10.0 

1.075 

40 

24.0 

1.200 

65 

35.4 

1.325 

90 

44.8 

1.450 

115 

52.7 

1.575 

140 

59.5 

1.700 

165 

65.2 

1.825 

16 

10.6 

1.080 

41 

24.5 

1.205 

66 

35 8 

1.330 

91 

45.1 

1.455 

116 

53.0 

1.580 

141 

59.7 

1.705 

166 

65.5 

1.830 

17 

11.2 

1.085 

42 

25.0 

1.210 

67 

36.2 

1 335 

92 

45.4 

1.460 

117 

53.3 

1.585 

142 

60.0 

1.710 

167 

65.7 

1.835 

18 

11.9 

1.090; 

43 

25.5 

1.215 

68 

36.6 

1.340 

93 

45.8 

1.465 

118 

53.6 

1.590 

143 

60.2 

1.715 

168 

65.9 

1.840 

19 

12.4 

1.095 1 

44 

26.0 

1.220' 

69 

37.0 

1.345 

94 

46.1 

1.470 

119 

53.9 

1.595 

144 

60.4 

1.720 

169 

66.1 

1.845 

20 i 

13.0 

1.100 

45 

26.4 ! 

1.225 

70 

37.4 

1.350 

95 

46.4 

1.475 

120 

54.1 

1.600 

145 

60.6 

1.725 

170 

66.3 

1.850 

21 

13.6 

1.105 

46 

26.9 1 

1.230 

71 

37.8 

1.355 

96 

46.8 

1.48ii 

121 

54.4 

1.605 

146 i 

60.9 

1.730 

171 

66.5 

1.855 

22 

14.2 

1.110 i 

47 

27.4 

1.235 

72 

38.2 

1.360 

97 

47.1 

1.485, 

122 

54.7 

1.610 

147 

61.1 

1.735 

172 

66.7 

1.860 

23 

14.9 

1-115 

48 

27.9 

1.240 

73 

38.6 

1.365 

98 

47.4 

1.490' 

123 

55.0 

1.615 

148 

61.4 

1.740 

173 

67.0 

1.865 

24 

15.4 

1.120 

49 

28.4 : 

1.245 

74 

39.0 ! 

1 

1.370 

1 

99 

47.8 

1.495* 

124 

55.2 

1.620 

149 

61.6 

1.745 

( 





34 









































































The most practical measure to use is the specific gravity without any reference to the different hydro¬ 
meter decrees. The further error in the use of the hydrometer is that there are hardly two gas works which 
produce a liquor containing the same per cent, of the different ammoniacal salts, e. ff one works may produce 
a liquor very high in carbonates. This will have a high specific gravity and a low per cent, of ammonia 
(N H 3 ), while another works would produce a liquor much higher in sulphites, which would show a compara- 
tively low specific gravity and a correspondingly high per cent, of ammonia. It is very desirable that the gas 
manager should be able to make an accurate test of his gas liquor, especially when selling it as concentrated 
liquor. This is done as follows : From one hundred to five hundred grams of crude liquor are placed in a flask 
(the amount depends entirely upon the strength of the liquor). The flask is connected with either a Will- 
Varrentrapp Nitrogen bulb or with a glass tube, which dips down into a beaker. The bulb or beaker, which¬ 
ever one is used, is charged with a sufficient quantity of normal solution of sulphuric acid (0.049 grams of 
sulphuric acid per cubic centimeter of solution) accurately measured to more than neutralize the ammonia to 
be driven off. One gram of this normal solution represents 0.17 grams ammonia. The flask is connected 
by means of a rubber or other suitable cork air tight, with the bulbs by means of the glass tube, and just 
before closing a few grams of concentrated caustic soda solution are added to the crude liquor The flask is at 
once closed and gently heated until steam commences to condense in the tube, and the liquid in the flask is 
near the boiling point. The ammonia evolved will all be absorbed by the sulphuric acid solution, through 
which it has to pass. In order to remove the last traces of ammonia from the flask, it is well to have a glass 
tube passing through the cork, and nearly to the bottom of the flask, and through this tube to blow slowly a 
stream of air. This will quickly remove all traces of the ammonia, which will be absorbed in the bulbs. The 
solution in the bulbs is then removed and titrated with a normal solution of caustic soda. This will show the 
number of C. Cs. of sulphuric acid that has been neutralized by the ammonium. This result, multiplied by 
0.017, will give the amount of ammonia, in grams, contained in the solution. 

AMMONIUM SULPHATE. 

Ammonium sulphate is the most readily salable product of gas-liquor. It is probably the safest method, 
take it year in and year out, for selling ammonia. The conversion of the crude liquor in ammonium 
sulphate is simple. The machinery necessary is not expensive and its operation not complicated, in fact, it is 
nearly automatic. The proper machine for manufacturing ammonium sulphate should be so constructed that 
all of the volatile ammonium compounds are removed before the liquor is mixed with milk of lime. After 
the admixture of the lime the liquor containing the freed ammonia should be thoroughly scrubbed with 


35 


steam, and this steam, containing the Ammonia, should pass into and scrub the crude liquor before reaching 
the lime. The freed ammonia and volatile ammonium compounds should leave the apparatus at a tempera- 
ture below the boiling point of water, and practically free from steam. This 6as is then absorbed in sulphuric 
acid, in an apparatus so constructed that the sulphate formed can be removed, and the poisonous £ases liber¬ 
ated, are confined and carried away with suitable pipes to some point where they can be either burned or prop- 
erly disposed of. In the manufacture of sulphate, it is often desirable to know the exact per cent, of sulphate 
in the liquid when neutralized. This is shown in Table No. 5. This, in connection with Table No. 6, makes it 
possible to not only £et the per cent, of sulphate contained in solution, but also to estimate the amount that 
will separate out on cooling to any £iven temperature. 





TABLE No. 5. 





TABLE 

No. 6. 



Specific Gravity of Different Solutions of Ammonium Sulphate at 15 C. 





Per Cent. 

S. G. 

Per Cent. 

< S. G. 

Per Cent. 

S. G. 

Per Cent. 

G. S. 


Sulphate. 












(N H 4 ) 2 

S 04 














1 

1.0057 

14 

1.0805 

27 

1.1554 

39 

1.2228 

<D* 

O 

!®§ 


• 00'S 


2 

1.0112 

15 

1.0862 

28 

1.1612 

40 

1.2284 

p bp 

T3 53.2 

s >-c 


^ jo a 

o p , o 

a 

© 

3 

1.0172 

16 

1.0920 

29 

1.1670 

41 

1.2343 

|J 

JC oci 

©•S.SP 


<d— TT > 
~ fcco ® - 

© 

4 

1.0230 

17 

1.0977 

30 

1.1724 

42 

1.2402 

5 

H 

a c3 c> 


° s 2 § ° 

CO 

5 

1.0287 

18 

1.1035 

31 

1.1780 

43 

1.2462 

0° 

71.00 parts. 

1.408 


6 

1.0345 

19 

1.1092 

32 

1.1836 

44 

1.2522 

o 

O 

rH 

73.65 

it 

1.358 


7 

1.0403 

20 

1.1149 

33 

1.1892 

45 

1.2583 

20° 

76.30 

“ 

1.311 


8 

1.0460 

21 

1.1207 

34 

1.1948 

46 

1.2644 

O 

O 

CO 

78.95 

it 

1.266 


9 

1.0518 

22 

1.1265 

35 

1.2004 

47 

1.2705 

Cl 

o 

o 

84.25 

It 

1.187 


10 

1.0575 

23 

1.1323 

36 

1.2060 

48 

1.2766 

70° 

89.55 

tt 

1.116 


11 

1.0632 

24 

1.1381 

37 

1.2116 

49 

1.2828 

O 

O 

C5 

94.85 

ll 

1.054 


12 

1.0690 

25 

1.1439 

38 

1.2172 

50 

1.2890 

100° 

97.50 

ll 

1.026 


13 

1.0747 

26 

1.1496 











36 




















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































































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